UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One)

☒ ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2022

OR

☐ TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934 FOR THE TRANSITION PERIOD FROM TO

Commission File Number 001-38130

Aileron Therapeutics, Inc.

(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its Charter)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (617) 995-0900

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. YES ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Act. YES ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ NO ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ NO ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C.7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). YES ☐ NO ☒

If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements. □

Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to § 240.10D-1(b). □

As of June 30, 2022, the last business day of the Registrant’s most recently completed second fiscal quarter, the aggregate market value of the voting and non-voting common equity held by non-affiliates of the Registrant, based on the last reported sale price of the shares of common stock on The Nasdaq Global Market was $19,137,097.

As of March 16, 2023, the Registrant has 4,541,167 shares of Common Stock, $0.001 par value per share, outstanding.

Table of Contents

Aileron and the other trademarks or service marks of Aileron appearing in this Annual Report on Form 10-K are the property of Aileron. All other trademarks, service marks or other trade names appearing in this Annual Report on Form 10-K are the property of their respective owners.

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SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS AND INDUSTRY DATA

This Annual Report on Form 10-K contains forward-looking statements that involve substantial risks and uncertainties. All statements, other than statements of historical facts, contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including statements regarding our strategy, future operations, future financial position, future revenue, projected costs, prospects, plans and objectives of management and expected market growth are forward-looking statements. The words “anticipate,” “believe,” “continue,” “could,” “estimate,” “expect,” “intend,” “may,” “plan,” “potential,” “predict,” “project,” “should,” “target,” “would” and similar expressions are intended to identify forward-looking statements, although not all forward-looking statements contain these identifying words.

These forward-looking statements include, among other things, statements about:

We may not actually achieve the plans, intentions or expectations disclosed in our forward-looking statements, and you should not place undue reliance on our forward-looking statements. Actual results or events could differ materially from the plans, intentions and expectations disclosed in the forward-looking statements we make. We have included important factors in the cautionary statements in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, particularly in the “Risk Factors” section, that could cause actual results or events to differ materially from the forward-looking statements that we make. Our forward-looking statements do not reflect the potential impact of any future acquisitions, mergers, dispositions, collaborations, joint ventures or investments that we may make or enter into.

You should read this Annual Report on Form 10-K and the documents that we reference herein and have filed or incorporated by reference hereto completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect. We do not assume any obligation to update any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, except as required by law.

This Annual Report on Form 10-K includes statistical and other industry and market data that we obtained from industry publications and research, surveys and studies conducted by third parties. Industry publications and third-party research, surveys and studies generally indicate that their information has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable, although they do not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of such information.

Summary Risk Factors

Our business is subject to a number of risks of which you should be aware in evaluating our company and our business. These risks are discussed more fully in the “Risk Factors” section of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2022. These risks include the following:

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Presentation of our Common Stock

On November 10, 2022, we effected a 1-for-20 reverse stock split of our common stock. All references to shares of common stock outstanding and per share amounts in this Annual Report on Form 10-K give effect to the reverse stock split unless otherwise indicated.

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PART I

Item 1. Business

Announcement of Exploration of Strategic Alternatives

In February 2023, we announced that a review of initial data from our Phase 1b chemoprotection trial of ALRN-6924 in patients with p53-mutated breast cancer showed that patients in the trial experienced severe neutropenia (Grade 4) and alopecia. The primary endpoint of the Phase 1b open-label trial, which was evaluating ALRN-6924 in patients with breast cancer receiving neoadjuvant or adjuvant treatment with docetaxel, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide, or TAC chemotherapy, was duration and incidence of severe neutropenia in cycle 1. Incidence of chemotherapy-induced alopecia (hair loss) was a secondary endpoint. Based on these findings, we have decided to terminate the Phase 1b breast cancer trial and further development of ALRN-6924.

We also announced that we are exploring a range of strategic alternatives to maximize shareholder value and have engaged Ladenburg Thalmann & Co., Inc. to act as an advisor for this process. Strategic alternatives that are being evaluated may include, but are not limited to, an acquisition, a merger, a business combination, a sale of assets or other transactions. There is no set timetable for this process and there can be no assurances that this process will result in us pursing a transaction or that any transaction, if pursued, will be completed on attractive terms. Due to the inherent uncertainty in the timing and cost of these potential strategic alternatives, including their impact on our cash consumption, we have concluded that as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K there is substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern.

In addition, we have determined to reduce our workforce to three full-time employees, which we expect to complete in the second quarter of 2023. We plan to retain the remaining employees to assist in executing the strategic alternatives review process.

Overview

ALRN-6924, is a MDM2/MDMX dual inhibitor that leverages our proprietary peptide drug technology.

When used as a chemoprotective agent, ALRN-6924 is designed to activate p53, which in turn upregulates p21, a known inhibitor of the cell replication cycle. ALRN-6924 was the only reported chemoprotective agent in clinical development to employ a biomarker strategy, in which we exclusively focused on treating patients with p53-mutated cancers. Prior to clinically evaluating ALRN-6924 as a chemoprotective agent in patients with p53-mutant cancer, we originally initiated clinical development of ALRN-6924 as an anti-cancer agent to restore p53-dependent tumor suppression in p53 wild-type tumors. When used as an anti-cancer agent, ALRN-6924 is designed to disrupt the interaction of p53 suppressors MDM2 and MDMX with tumor suppressor p53 to reactivate tumor suppression in non-mutant, or wild-type, p53 cancers.

Our clinical development program for ALRN-6924 as a selective chemoprotective agent in patients with p53-mutated cancer included the following clinical trials:

Our clinical development program for ALRN-6924 as an anti-cancer agent in patients with wild-type p53 included the following clinical trials:

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Our Proprietary Peptide Drug Technology

We designed ALRN-6924 using our proprietary peptide drug technology. Using this technology, we stabilize peptides by “stapling” them with hydrocarbon bonds into their natural alpha-helical conformation. We achieve this by inserting into the peptides two or more non-natural amino acids that, when catalyzed by a chemical reaction, form a bridge to provide comparable stability to the endogenous protein structure and maintain the biological activity of the peptide.

Our proprietary technology enables us to chemically stabilize and improve the performance and activity of a broad range of alpha-helical peptides that we believe may have benefit in oncology and other diseases. We believe that our stabilized peptides can potentially activate and inhibit key cellular functions that underlie disease and that are otherwise difficult to target with existing drug technologies, including small molecules and monoclonal antibodies.

We own worldwide commercial rights to ALRN-6924 and our peptide technology.

Chemotherapy and the Need for Novel and Improved Treatment Options to Reduce Chemotherapy-Induced Toxicities

Cancer is a major public health problem in the United States and worldwide. The U.S. National Cancer Institute has estimated that approximately 40% of all men and women in the United States will be diagnosed with cancer during their lifetime. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, cancer is currently the second leading cause of death in the United States and is expected to surpass heart disease as the leading cause of death in the next several years. Although progress has been made in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, the American Cancer Society estimates that approximately 2.0 million new cancer cases will be diagnosed in the United States and more than 600,000 people will die from cancer in 2023.

Chemotherapy is a critical therapeutic pillar to treat cancer patients, but chemotherapy causes toxicities in normal tissues and organs that limit the dose and schedule of these drugs, thus reducing their efficacy. These toxicities are due to the lack of specificity of chemotherapies, which act on all proliferating cells as they proceed through the cell replication cycle. Consequently, these chemotherapies can damage normal, healthy proliferating cells. Chemotherapy-related toxicities of the bone marrow include anemia, neutropenia and thrombocytopenia, which may lead to fatigue, increased risk of infection, sepsis and bleeding, and can potentially be life threatening. We believe arresting the cell cycle of bone marrow cells prior to systemic treatment with chemotherapy will reduce or mitigate the toxic effect on those cells.

Chemotherapy-induced hematological toxicities most often present as neutropenia, thrombocytopenia and anemia, and represent key dose-limiting toxicities occurring in the course of treatment of cancer patients. In addition to the impact on patients’ quality of life, two major consequences of chemotherapy-induced toxicity are increased risk to patient safety and reduced efficacy of chemotherapy due to dose reductions and dose delays.

Available treatment strategies for clinical management of chemotherapy-induced hematological toxicities include the use of growth factors, transfusions, and dose reductions and dose delays of therapy. While growth factors can be effective in addressing their respective indication, such as neutropenia or anemia, they are known to increase the risk of tumor progression, and carry the risk of other side effects. Transfusions are limited by availability and supply, as well as transfusion reactions that may require medical treatment. Therefore, management of chemotherapy-induced hematological toxicity remains a significant unmet medical need for millions of cancer patients worldwide.

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Granulocyte-colony-stimulating-factor, or G-CSF, is a glycoprotein that stimulates the bone marrow to produce granulocytes and stem cells and release them into the bloodstream. Platelet growth factors or thrombopoietin (TPO) receptor agonists, including romiplostim (Nplate) and eltrombopag (Promacta/Revolade), stimulate megakaryocytes in the bone marrow and increase platelet production, but fail to protect patients from chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia. Erythropoietin, or EPO, is a glycoprotein cytokine secreted by the kidney in response to cellular hypoxia and it stimulates red blood cell production, or erythropoiesis, in the bone marrow. Additionally, blood products such as donated red blood cells and platelets can be transfused to patients with anemia and thrombocytopenia, respectively.

While growth factors are widely used in the medical management of cancer patients who experience cytopenias, their prescribing information indicates that those drugs may stimulate the growth and aggressiveness of cancer cells Another important consideration is that those supportive care measures are used to treat patients once they experience cytopenias and are already at risk of infection and bleeding.

Novel and optimized supportive care drugs should ideally have a mechanism of action that selectively protect normal healthy cells from chemotherapy-related toxicities without protecting cancer cells from chemotherapeutic destruction, while leaving cancer cells fully vulnerable to chemotherapy. We were developing ALRN-6924 as a chemoprotective agent for patients with p53-mutated cancers, with its specific mechanism of p53 upregulation, to address both requirements. ALRN-6924 was designed to release functional p53 in normal healthy cells only, and, thus, was not expected to functionally affect p53-mutated cancer cells. Due to lack of effect in p53 mutated cancer cells, we believed ALRN-6924 could be used safely in a prophylactic manner, mitigating and reducing cytopenias and potentially other chemotherapy-related side effects caused by anti-cancer drugs.

p53 and its Control of the Cell Replication Cycle

One of the main functions of p53 is to control genes that regulate the cell replication cycle. Chemotherapy preferentially acts on cells that are cycling, i.e. undergoing the process of cell division. In cancer cells, the cell cycle is unchecked, which leads to uncontrolled cell proliferation, a hallmark of cancer. Certain types of healthy cells also naturally need to cycle, such as bone marrow cells, hair follicle cells, skin cells, and cells lining the oral cavity and the gastrointestinal tract. As a result, chemotherapy preferentially targets and kills both cycling healthy cells and cycling cancer cells. This, in turn, can lead to a spectrum of chemotherapy-induced side effects, from unpleasant to life-threatening and fatal. In cells with DNA damage from radiation or chemical modification by a carcinogen, cell cycle arrest by p53, which is the activation of normal p53 protein in patients’ healthy cells, temporarily and reversibly pauses cell cycling ensuring that damaged cells do not continue to propagate uncontrollably and form cancerous lesions. This is why functional p53 is critical to human health and the main reason it has been called the “guardian of the genome.” When p53 itself is mutated or pathologically inhibited by its natural regulators, cells can grow uncontrollably and may eventually form a tumor. Approximately half of all cancer patients at initial diagnosis have cancers that harbor mutations in the p53 gene, thus causing loss of function of p53 in cancer cells. Healthy cells in cancer patients retain normal p53 function.

Because of its importance in the cell replication cycle, p53 activity is carefully regulated in normal, healthy cells. As depicted in the figure below, the most important regulatory elements for p53 are MDM2 and MDMX, two proteins that bind to p53 and play non-redundant roles in modulating p53 activity. In normal healthy cells, MDM2 primarily acts to shuttle p53 out of the nucleus and target it for degradation, whereas MDMX generally acts to sequester p53. By playing these roles, MDM2 and MDMX collectively suppress p53’s activity so that normal healthy cells can function as expected. In healthy cells that rapidly replicate under normal circumstances, such as bone marrow cells that divide and transform into blood cells, p53 activation can induce cell cycle arrest. ALRN-6924 is designed to achieve this effect by entering the cell and mimicking the p53 protein to disrupt p53’s interactions with its endogenous inhibitors, MDMX and MDM2. ALRN-6924 thereby activates the mechanisms used by p53 in normal healthy cells with non-mutant, or “wild-type” p53 to regulate cell division and progression through the cell replication cycle. We have shown that ALRN-6924 can temporarily and reversibly arrest cell cycling in normal, p53-wild-type cells to selectively shield them from chemotherapy.

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ALRN-6924 as a Chemoprotective Agent

Chemotherapies used to treat cancer patients can cause toxicities in normal tissues and organs, thereby limiting the dose and schedule of these drugs and reducing their efficacy. These toxicities are due to the lack of specificity of chemotherapies, which act on all proliferating cells as they proceed through the cell replication cycle. Consequently, these chemotherapies can damage normal, healthy cells. We believe arresting proliferation of bone marrow cells prior to systemic treatment with chemotherapy should reduce or mitigate the toxic effect on those cells.

ALRN-6924 can pause cell division in cells with wild type, or WT, p53, including normal bone marrow cells, and ALRN-6924 has no activity against cancer cells with mutations in p53. We were developing ALRN-6924 to show that treatment of patients with ALRN-6924 may reduce the toxic effects of chemotherapy in the bone marrow, as well as other tissues, as well as a reduction of common chemotherapy-induced toxicities outside the bone marrow, including alopecia, stomatitis, and gastrointestinal illness, in each case without adversely impacting the anti-cancer activity of chemotherapy against p53-mutant tumor cells.

Bone marrow toxicity is the dose-limiting safety concern of many chemotherapeutics, and cell-cycle arrest prior to administration of chemotherapy has been shown to reduce bone marrow toxicity. We were developing ALRN-6924 to show that it may serve as a chemoprotective agent for bone marrow cells, without adversely impacting the cell cycle of mutant p53 cancer cells. Therefore, p53-mutant cancer cells remain fully susceptible to chemotherapy following dosing with ALRN-6924.

Preclinical Studies

We have published extensive biochemical, cellular and in vivo data on ALRN-6924. In preclinical studies, ALRN-6924 successfully activated WT p53 and induced cell-cycle arrest in normal tissues, including bone marrow cells, in a dose and schedule dependent manner. Our preclinical data show that ALRN-6924 can induce transient and reversible cell-cycle arrest in normal human bone marrow cells invitro, and ALRN-6924 protected bone marrow cells from chemotherapy induced DNA damage when administered in advance of topotecan, a chemotherapy used to treat SCLC and other cancers.

Clinical Development of ALRN-6924 as a Chemoprotective Agent

Phase 1b Clinical Trial in Patients with SCLC

In 2021, we completed a Phase 1b clinical trial that demonstrated proof-of-concept of ALRN-6924 as an investigational treatment to protect in patients with p53-mutated SCLC undergoing treatment with the chemotherapy topotecan from chemotherapy-induced toxicities. In this trial we evaluated multiple dose levels and dosing schedules

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of ALRN-6924 when administered before topotecan. In September 2021, we presented final results from the trial at the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) Congress. A total of 39 patients were enrolled in the trial, 38 of whom were evaluable per the trial protocol. In the trial, topotecan (1.5 mg/m2) was administered to all patients on days 1 through 5 of every 21-day treatment cycle. Of these patients, 32 patients (31 evaluable) were treated with ALRN-6924 at 24 hours before each dose of topotecan at the following dose levels: 0.2 mg/kg (N=4), 0.3 mg/kg (N=16), 0.6 mg/kg (N=6; 5 evaluable) and 1.2 mg/kg (N=6). Seven patients were treated with 0.3 mg/kg of ALRN-6924 at 6 hours before each dose of topotecan.

In the trial, toxicities were evaluated using the National Cancer Institute’s, or NCI, Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events, or CTCAE. Per protocol, patients were not permitted to receive prophylactic, or G-CSF, treatment in cycle 1.

Key findings from the final data include the following:

The median number of completed topotecan treatment cycles across all cohorts was 3. In addition, 13% of patients required topotecan dose reduction. No patients reported National Cancer Institute Common Terminology Criteria Adverse Events, or NCI CTCAE, Grade 3 or greater events of nausea, vomiting or diarrhea; 5% of patients had Grade 3 fatigue.

While chemoprotective effects were observed across all ALRN-6924 dose levels studied in the Phase 1b SCLC trial, the 0.3 mg/kg ALRN 6924 dose level given 24 hours prior to topotecan demonstrated the most robust chemoprotection effect. None of the 16 of patients treated at the 0.3 mg/kg 24 hour ALRN-6924 dose level had a related serious adverse event. One patient (6%) at the 0.3 mg/kg 24 hour ALRN-6924 dose level required a red blood cell transfusion and a platelet transfusion.

Phase 1 Pharmacology Study in Healthy Volunteers

In October 2022, we presented additional results from our completed Phase 1 study of ALRN-6924 in healthy volunteers, which showed that ALRN-6924 induced p53-mediated cell cycle arrest in bone marrow stem cells and hair follicles. The data from the study support the potential of ALRN-6924 to prevent chemotherapy-induced neutropenia, thrombocytopenia and anemia, as well as chemotherapy-induced alopecia.

In this study, cell cycle arrest was directly measured in the bone marrow and hair follicles of an additional 41 females. ALRN-6924 was administered as a single one-hour IV infusion or three-minute bolus injection at 0.3, 0.6, or 0.9 mg/kg to cohorts of three to nine subjects and compared to placebo. Subjects were evaluated for safety and tolerability. Plasma and serum samples were obtained to determine pharmacokinetics and levels of macrophage

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inhibitory cytokine-1, or MIC-1, a biomarker of p53 activation. Bone marrow was sampled 12 hours post-dose to directly measure cell cycle arrest by flow cytometry in CD34+, lineage-negative bone marrow stem cells. Occipital scalp skin was sampled by 2 mm punch biopsy for p21 immunohistochemistry in hair follicles.

ALRN-6924 continued to demonstrate a favorable safety and tolerability profile, with subjects experiencing only mild, transient adverse events, with nausea/vomiting as the most frequent related adverse events. The degree and duration of serum MIC-1 elevation was dose-dependent, indicating more durable p53 activation at higher ALRN-6924 doses. At 12 hours post-dose, the proportion of cycling bone marrow stem cells was significantly reduced at all dose levels. A blinded pathology review suggested that there was ALRN-6924-dependent p21 induction in anagen-phase hair follicles. Safety profiles, PK and PD were similar for both the three-minute bolus injection and one-hour IV infusion which, provided a rationale for development of ALRN-6924 bolus administration.

Phase 1b Clinical Trial in Patients with NSCLC

In the second quarter of 2021, we initiated a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 1b clinical trial of ALRN-6924 in patients with advanced NSCLC, undergoing chemotherapy. We planned to enroll 60 patients with advanced p53-mutated NSCLC undergoing treatment with first-line carboplatin plus pemetrexed with or without immune checkpoint inhibitors. Patients enrolled in the NSCLC trial were to be randomized 1:1 to receive carboplatin/pemetrexed plus 0.3 mg/kg ALRN-6924 or placebo for at least four 21-day treatment cycles. Components of the composite primary endpoint were the proportion of treatment cycles free of severe hematological and other toxicities, including Grade ≥ 3 neutropenia, Grade ≥ 3 thrombocytopenia, Grade ≥ 3 anemia, Grade 4 neutropenia and febrile neutropenia, as well as duration of Grade 4 neutropenia. An additional component of the primary endpoint was the proportion of completed treatment cycles without chemotherapy dose reduction or without the use of growth factors or transfusions. Other endpoints included the proportion of patients with NCI CTCAE Grade 3/4 treatment-emergent adverse events, quality of life, overall response rate, and progression-free survival.

In the first quarter of 2022, we conducted a blinded safety evaluation of the first ten patients enrolled in the trial who completed the first cycle of treatment with ALRN-6924 and chemotherapy. The evaluation did not identify any safety concern, consistent with ALRN-6924’s previously demonstrated safety and tolerability profile. In the second quarter of 2022, we announced interim trial data from the first 20 patients in the NSCLC trial.

Key findings from the NSCLC trial interim analysis included:

The composite primary endpoint was designed to evaluate the first four cycles of chemotherapy, which is standard of care for patients receiving checkpoint inhibitors. Given that of the 20 patients in the interim analysis received a checkpoint inhibitor and therefore the interim analysis also included results for all 6 cycles of chemotherapy, which is the standard of care of patients not receiving a checkpoint inhibitor.

Based on this interim data, we decided to stop further enrollment in and terminate the NSCLC trial. Following this trial, we observed in our concurrently conducted Phase 1 pharmacology study in healthy volunteers that a higher dose level of ALRN-6924 could provide more durable cell cycle arrest and, thus more chemoprotection against certain chemotherapies, including carboplatin/pemetrexed. This observation was supported by earlier data generated from the healthy volunteer study in which serum MIC-1 levels were measured as an indicator of the duration of

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effect of ALRN-6924, including the duration of cell cycle arrest. Increasing dose levels of ALRN-6924 elicited more durable p53 activation, which correlates with cell cycle arrest in the bone marrow.

Phase 1b clinical trial in patients with Breast Cancer

We initiated a Phase 1b clinical trial in the first half of 2022 to evaluate ALRN-6924 as a chemoprotective agent in patients with p53-mutated breast cancer undergoing either neoadjuvant or adjuvant treatment with TAC chemotherapy. We planned to enroll up to 24 patients in a parallel group design trial with a dose expansion cohort.

In August 2022, we announced modifications to the trial design based on key, collective learnings from our healthy volunteer study, as well as our NSCLC and SCLC clinical trials, that were intended to improve the opportunity to demonstrate protection against chemotherapy-induced severe neutropenia, alopecia and potentially other toxicities in patients with p53-mutated breast cancer. The primary endpoint of the Phase 1b open-label trial was duration and incidence of severe neutropenia in cycle 1. Incidence of chemotherapy-induced alopecia (hair loss) was a secondary endpoint.

In February 2023, we reviewed initial data from our Phase 1b chemoprotection trial of ALRN-6924 in patients with p53-mutated breast cancer, which showed that patients in the trial experienced severe neutropenia (Grade 4) and alopecia. Based on these findings, we decided to terminate the Phase 1b breast cancer trial and further development of ALRN-6924.

Clinical Trials of ALRN-6924 as an Anti-Cancer Agent

We originally initiated development of ALRN-6924 as an anti-cancer agent to restore p53-dependent tumor suppression in p53 wild-type tumors. We evaluated ALRN-6924 as an anti-cancer agent in 196 patients in multiple clinical trials. In these trials, ALRN-6924 was generally well-tolerated, with evidence of single-agent anti-tumor activity including complete and partial responses.

We have evaluated high dose therapy with ALRN-6924 (up to 5 mg/kg body weight) in 196 patients in earlier clinical trials evaluating ALRN-6924 as an anti-cancer agent including a single-agent Phase 1 trial in solid tumor and lymphoma patients; a Phase 2a trial for the treatment of peripheral T-cell lymphoma; a single-agent Phase 1 trial for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia, or AML, and advanced high-risk myelodysplastic syndrome, or MDS; a Phase 1b trial testing the combination of ALRN-6924 and cytarabine, or Ara-C, in patients with MDS; and a Phase 2a combination trial of ALRN-6924 and palbociclib in patients with tumors harboring MDM2 amplifications or MDM2/CDK4 co-amplifications.

In March 2020, we determined to cease further clinical development of ALRN-6924 as a direct anti-cancer agent in light of our available resources at that time, the data generated thus far, and our assessment of the commercial opportunities and competitive landscape in indications for which we were evaluating ALRN-6924.

Manufacturing

We contracted with third parties for the GMP manufacture of ALRN-6924 for certain materials, including raw materials and consumables necessary for their manufacture, for use in our completed preclinical studies and clinical trials. We have paused manufacture of ALRN-6924 as we engage in a process to evaluate strategic alternatives. As such, we do not intend to continue to contract for these materials for the foreseeable future. In addition, we do not own or operate GMP manufacturing facilities. Although we have relied upon contract manufacturers for the manufacture of ALRN-6924 for clinical trials, we had personnel with extensive manufacturing experience who oversaw our contract manufacturers.

The active pharmaceutical ingredient, or API, for ALRN-6924 was manufactured by a single contract manufacturer. We used a different manufacturer to conduct fill-and-finish and labeling services, as well as for the storage and distribution of ALRN-6924 to clinical sites. We believe that adequate alternative sources for the supply of materials for ALRN-6924 exist.

We believe that, because ALRN-6924 is a peptide, it can be manufactured through reliable and reproducible synthetic processes from readily available raw materials and then purified and packaged for clinical use. We believe

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that the chemistry process is amenable to scale-up and does not require unusual equipment in the manufacturing process.

We purchased all of our olefin metathesis catalyst compositions, which are used in the manufacturing process to cross-link, or “staple,” our API precursors into the final stapled peptides, under a license agreement with Materia, Inc. which has later merged with Umicore Precious Metals Chemistry USA, LLC, or Umicore. Under the license agreement, if Umicore is unable to meet requirements for such olefin metathesis catalyst compositions in terms of amount or delivery date, then we were permitted to procure such olefin metathesis catalyst compositions from a third party until such time that Umicore could meet our requirements. We have paused manufacturing of ALRN-6924 as we engage in a process to evaluate strategic alternatives.

Manufacturing clinical products is subject to extensive regulations that impose various procedural and documentation requirements, which govern record keeping, manufacturing processes and controls, personnel, quality control and quality assurance. Our contract manufacturers are required to comply with current good manufacturing practice regulations, which are regulatory requirements for the production of pharmaceuticals that will be used in humans.

Companion Diagnostic

We relied upon commercially available third-party assays and employed a central laboratory to test both archived tumor tissue samples and fresh biopsy samples from patients taken prior to enrollment in our clinical trials to identify patients with p53-mutated cancer or cancer patients with wild-type p53.

If we had continued development of ALRN-6924 as a chemoprotective agent, we would have been required to have a companion in vitro diagnostic to identify patients with p53-mutated cancer, approved for use with ALRN-6924, because our clinical trials were designed to only include patients with p53-mutated cancers. We also would have needed to engage a third party to develop and supply a commercially available diagnostic to identify patients with p53-mutant cancer.

Similarly, if we had continued development of ALRN-6924 an anti-cancer agent, we would have been required to have a companion in vitro diagnostic, to identify cancer patients with wild-type 53, approved for use with ALRN-6924. We also would have needed to engage a third party to develop and supply a commercially available diagnostic to identify cancer patients with wild-type p53.

Competition

The biopharmaceutical industry generally, and the cancer drug sector specifically, are highly competitive and characterized by rapidly advancing technologies, evolving understanding of disease etiology and a strong emphasis on proprietary drugs. The development of ALRN-6924 faced and would have continued to face significant potential competition from many different sources, including major pharmaceutical, specialty pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academic institutions, governmental agencies and public and private research institutions, and with respect to existing chemoprotective agents and other supportive care products and new therapies that may become available in the future.

There are a large number of companies developing or marketing treatments for cancer. Many of these companies have significant financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved drugs than we do. Small or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. These competitors also compete in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel and establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or that may have been necessary for, our programs.

Our competitors could develop and commercialize drugs that are safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient or are less expensive than ALRN-6924. The key competitive factors affecting the success of any product candidate, if approved, are likely to be its efficacy, safety, convenience, price, the effectiveness of companion diagnostics in guiding the use of related therapeutics, the level of generic competition and the availability of reimbursement from government and other third-party payors.

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We designed ALRN-6924 to act as a reactivator of p53. We are aware of product candidates that are in clinical development by third parties for the treatment of various cancers through the reactivation of p53. Although there is a subset of drugs that directly target the p53 pathway, there are many cancer drugs that claim to affect the p53 pathway by upstream or complementary pathways. We are aware of selective small molecule inhibitors that are designed to target the p53-MDM2 interaction in various stages of clinical development as anti-cancer agents being tested by F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd and Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., or collectively Roche, Novartis AG, Daiichi Sankyo Co., Ltd., Boehringer Ingelheim, Ascentage Pharma Group Corporation, Ltd, Kartos Therapeutics, Inc. and Unity Biotechnology, Inc. including testing MDM2 inhibitors in combination with a variety of other anti-cancer agents.

In February 2021, the FDA approved trilaciclib (COSELA™), a short-acting intravenous CDK4/6 inhibitor developed by G1 Therapeutics, Inc., or GTHX, to decrease chemotherapy-induced myelosuppression in adult patients when administered prior to a platinum/etoposide-containing regimen or topotecan-containing regimen for extensive-stage SCLC. GTHX is conducting additional clinical trials of trilaciclib in other cancer indications, including a Phase 3 clinical trial in patients with triple-negative breast cancer, a Phase 2 trial in combination with an antibody-drug conjugate in patients with triple-negative breast cancer, a Phase 2 trial in patients with neoadjuvant triple-negative breast cancer and a Phase 2 clinical trial in patients with bladder cancer. BeyondSpring Inc. is developing plinabulin in combination with G-CSF for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia. In December 2021, BeyondSpring Inc. received a complete response letter from the FDA after submitting an NDA to the FDA for approval. BeyondSpring is conducted clinical trials evaluating plinabulin for the prevention of docetaxel-induced neutropenia in patients with NSCLC and breast cancer.

Intellectual Property

We sought to protect the proprietary technologies that we believed are important to our business, including seeking and maintaining patent protection intended to cover the composition of matter of ALRN-6924, its methods of use, related technology, and other inventions that are important to our business. In addition to patent protection, we rely on trade secrets and confidentiality agreements to protect our technology, know-how and other aspects our business that are not amenable to, or that we do not consider appropriate for, patent protection.

We protected our intellectual property estate by filing patent applications directed to dosage forms, methods of treatment, diagnostics, and additional compounds and their derivatives. Specifically, we sought and may continue to seek patent protection in the United States and internationally for novel compositions of matter covering the compounds, the chemistries and processes for manufacturing these compounds, and the use of these compounds in a variety of therapies.

The patent positions of biopharmaceutical companies like us are generally uncertain and involve complex legal, scientific and factual questions. In addition, the coverage claimed in a patent application can be significantly reduced before the patent is issued, and its scope can be reinterpreted after issuance. Consequently, we do not know whether ALRN-6924 will be protectable or remain protected by enforceable patents. We cannot predict whether the patent applications we filed will issue as patents in any particular jurisdiction or whether the claims of any issued patents will provide sufficient proprietary protection from competitors. Any patents that we hold may be challenged, circumvented or invalidated by third parties.

Because patent applications in the United States and certain other jurisdictions are maintained in secrecy for 18 months, and since publication of discoveries in the scientific or patent literature often lags actual discoveries, we cannot be certain of the priority of inventions covered by pending patent applications. Moreover, we may have to participate in interference proceedings declared by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, or USPTO, to determine priority of invention or in post-grant challenge proceedings at the USPTO or at a foreign patent office, such as inter partes review and post grant review proceedings at the USPTO and opposition proceedings at the European Patent Office, that challenge priority of invention or other features of patentability. Such proceedings could result in substantial cost, even if the eventual outcome is favorable to us.

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We generally file a provisional patent application with the USPTO first and then subsequently file a corresponding non-provisional patent application, which enables us to establish an earlier effective filing date in the subsequently filed non-provisional patent application. In order to benefit from the earlier effective filing date, we must file a corresponding non-provisional patent application, such as a utility application in the United States or an international application under the Patent Cooperation Treaty, or PCT, within 12 months of the date of the provisional patent application filing. Based on a PCT filing, we may file national and regional patent applications in the United States or foreign jurisdictions, such as the European Union, the United Kingdom, China, Japan, Australia, Canada, Brazil, India, Indonesia, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, South Korea, Singapore, South Africa or the Eurasian Patent Organization. No earlier than June 1, 2023, European applications will soon have the option, upon grant of a patent, of becoming a Unitary Patent which will be subject to the jurisdiction of the Unitary Patent Court, or UPC. This will be a significant change in European patent practice. As the UPC is a new court system, there is no precedent for the court, increasing the uncertainty of any litigation. To date, we have not filed for patent protection in all national and regional jurisdictions where such protection may be available, and we may decide to abandon national and regional patent applications before a patent is granted. In addition, the patent grant proceeding for each national or regional patent application that we file is an independent proceeding. As a result, it is possible for a patent application to be granted in one jurisdiction and denied in another jurisdiction, and depending on the jurisdiction, the scope of patent protection may vary.

Geo-political actions in the United States and in foreign countries could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution or maintenance of our patent applications or those of any current or future licensors and the maintenance, enforcement or defense of our issued patents or those of any current or future licensors. For example, the United States and foreign government actions related to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine may limit or prevent filing, prosecution and maintenance of patent applications in Russia. Government actions may also prevent maintenance of issued patents in Russia. These actions could result in abandonment or lapse of our patents or patent applications, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in Russia. If such an event were to occur, it could have a material adverse effect on our business. In addition, a decree was adopted by the Russian government in March 2022, allowing Russian companies and individuals to exploit inventions owned by patentees from the United States without consent or compensation. Consequently, we would not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in Russia or from selling or importing products made using our inventions in and into Russia.

Patent Portfolio

We have rights in patents and patent applications directed to the composition of matter and/or use of ALRN-6924 in the United States and in other countries. We also have an exclusive license to patents that are directed to a class of compounds that includes ALRN-6924. The composition of matter patents that are directed towards the specific chemical structure of ALRN-6924 are wholly owned by us and are expected to expire in 2033, absent any potential patent term extension under the Hatch-Waxman Act, which is discussed in greater detail below. In addition, we have granted patents and pending patent applications directed towards the composition of matter for ALRN-6924 in foreign jurisdictions, including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Australia, Canada, China, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, India and Hong Kong, among others. Our patent portfolio also includes wholly-owned patents and patent applications that cover uses for ALRN-6924 in both the US and foreign jurisdictions.

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As of March 1, 2023, we owned or had an exclusive license to 38 U.S. patents, 7 pending U.S. provisional or non-provisional patent applications, 123 foreign patents and 27 pending foreign applications. The claims of these owned or in-licensed patents and patent applications are directed toward various aspects of ALRN-6924. Specifically, the claims of these patents and patent applications include compositions of matter, methods of use, drug product formulations, diagnostics, methods of manufacture and methods of identifying active compounds. Such owned and in-licensed patents and patent applications, if issued, are expected to expire on various dates from 2024 through 2041, without taking into account any possible patent term adjustments or extensions. Within our patent portfolio, as of March 1, 2023, we owned or had an exclusive license to 25 U.S. patents, 6 pending U.S. provisional or non-provisional patent applications, 52 foreign patents and 18 pending foreign applications that include claims covering ALRN-6924, such as its composition of matter, formulations, manufacturing processes, manufacturing precursors or uses thereof. Such owned and in-licensed patents and patent applications, if issued, are expected to expire on various dates from 2024 through 2041, with the owned patents and patent applications, if issued, expiring on various dates from 2029 to 2041, in each case without taking into account any possible patent term adjustment or extensions. Without taking into account any possible patent term adjustments or extensions, such owned and in-licensed patents claiming compositions of matter covering ALRN-6924 are expected to expire on various dates from 2024 through 2033, with the owned patents and patent applications, if issued, expiring on various dates from 2029 to 2033. Lastly, within our patent portfolio, as of March 1, 2023, 8 U.S. patents, 27 foreign patents are licensed to us by the President and Fellows of Harvard College, or Harvard, and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, or DFCI, pursuant to our license agreement with such parties, which patents and patent applications, if issued, are expected to expire on various dates from 2024 through 2028, without taking into account any possible patent term adjustments or extensions. We also have rights to certain patents and pending patent applications throughout the world licensed on a non-exclusive basis to us by Umicore and other third parties pursuant to our license agreements with such parties.

The term of individual patents depends upon the legal term of the patents in the countries in which they are obtained. In most countries in which we file, the patent term is 20 years from the earliest date of filing a non-provisional patent application.

In the United States, the Hatch-Waxman Act permits a patent holder to apply for patent term extension of a patent that covers an FDA-approved drug, which, if granted, can extend the patent term of such patent to compensate for the patent term lost during the FDA regulatory review process. This extension can be for up to five years beyond the original expiration date of the patent. The length of the patent term extension is related to the length of time the drug is under regulatory review. Patent extension cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the date of product approval and only one patent applicable to an approved drug may be extended. Similar provisions are available in Europe and other non-United States jurisdictions to extend the term of a patent that covers an approved drug. In the future, if and when ALRN-6924 receives FDA approval, we expect to apply for patent term extensions on patents covering such product candidate. While we intend to seek patent term extensions to any of our patents in any jurisdiction where such extensions are available, there is no guarantee that the applicable authorities, including the FDA in the United States, will agree with our assessment of whether such extensions should be granted, and even if granted, the length of such extensions.

In addition to our reliance on patent protection for our inventions, product candidates and research programs, we also rely on trade secret protection for our confidential and proprietary information. Although we take steps to protect our proprietary information and trade secrets, including through contractual means with our employees and consultants, third parties may independently develop substantially equivalent proprietary information and techniques or otherwise gain access to our trade secrets or disclose our technology. Thus, we may not be able to meaningfully protect our trade secrets. It is our policy to require our employees, consultants, outside scientific collaborators, sponsored researchers and other advisors to execute confidentiality agreements upon the commencement of employment or consulting relationships with us. These agreements provide that all confidential information concerning our business or financial affairs developed or made known to the individual or entity during the course of the party’s relationship with us is to be kept confidential and not disclosed to third parties except in specific circumstances. In the case of employees, the agreements provide that all inventions conceived by the individual, and which are related to our current or planned business or research and development or made during normal working hours, on our premises or using our equipment or proprietary information, are our exclusive property.

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License Agreements

Harvard and Dana-Farber License Agreement

In August 2006, we entered into a license agreement with Harvard and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, or DFCI. This agreement was amended and restated in February 2010. Pursuant to the amended and restated agreement, Harvard and DFCI granted us an exclusive worldwide license, with the right to sublicense, under certain patents and patent applications to develop, make, have made, market, use, sell, offer for sale, and import products covered by the patents and patent rights. Pursuant to this agreement, we have an exclusive license to patents that are directed to a class of compounds that includes ALRN-6924, which is in addition to the composition of matter patents directed towards the specific chemical structure of ALRN-6924 that are wholly-owned by us. We also generally have the first right to enforce the licensed patents against third-party infringers.

Under the terms of the amended and restated agreement, we are obligated to use commercially reasonable efforts to develop licensed products in accordance with a development plan and to develop and commercialize licensed products. We are also required to achieve specified milestone events by specified dates. Depending on the failure, Harvard may terminate the agreement either in its entirety or as to categories of licensed patent rights if we fail to achieve such milestone events and do not cure such failure within a specified termination notice period.

In addition, under the license agreement, if a third party makes a proposal to Harvard or DFCI to develop a licensed product that does not contain a peptide that is substantially similar to a peptide in a licensed product we are developing, that would be developed for an indication for which we are not interested in developing a licensed product and that would not present a material risk of competing through off-label use with a licensed product we are developing or plan to develop, and Harvard is interested in having such product developed and commercialized, Harvard is to notify us of the proposal. Following such notification, we then have the right to decide to develop such product ourselves, subject to agreement with Harvard upon a development plan and milestones, to directly negotiate a sublicense with such third party of the licensed intellectual property only or to give Harvard the right to negotiate such a sublicense with the third party in which case we will be entitled to a portion of the income to Harvard from the sublicense. Harvard may also terminate the agreement upon our breach of our payment obligations by us under the agreement if we do not cure such breach within a specified period. Harvard and DFCI may terminate the agreement upon other material breaches by us under the agreement if we do not cure such breach within a specified period or our bankruptcy or insolvency. We may terminate the agreement upon any breach by Harvard or DFCI if not cured within a specified notice period or at any time for any reason upon written notice to Harvard and DFCI. If not earlier terminated, the agreement will remain in force on a licensed product-by-licensed product and country-by-country basis until the expiration of the last-to-expire applicable licensed patent.

As of December 31, 2022, we have paid non-refundable fees, consisting of license and maintenance fees, milestone payments and sublicense fees, of $5.1 million. We are obligated to pay annual maintenance fees totaling $110,000, which on an annual basis are creditable against royalties due for commercial sales of licensed products. We are obligated to make additional milestone payments of up to a maximum of $7.5 million upon our achievement of certain specified clinical, regulatory and sales milestones with respect to ALRN-6924. In the future, we may be obligated to pay up to a maximum of $7.7 million per additional licensed therapeutic product upon our achievement of certain specified clinical, regulatory and sales milestones with respect to such product with the first milestone being payable upon initiation of clinical development of the product. We may also be obligated to pay up to a maximum of $700,000 per licensed diagnostic product upon our achievement of certain specified regulatory and sales milestones with respect to such product. We also have agreed to pay low single-digit percentage royalties on aggregate worldwide net sales of licensed products, including sales by our sublicensees, on a licensed product-by-licensed product and country-by-country basis until the expiration of the last-to-expire applicable licensed patent. Our royalty obligations are subject to specified reductions in the event that we are required to obtain additional licenses from third parties and to make payments to such third parties under such licenses. We must also pay a percentage, up to the mid-twenties, of all sublicense income received from sublicensees, less certain costs, such as research and development costs and, in the event our patent rights are licensed to the sublicensee as part of the same transaction, less the portion of sublicense income allocated to our licensed patent rights. Under specified circumstances, portions of our sublicense payments may be creditable against royalty payments payable for sales of a licensed product. Finally, we must also reimburse all future patent expenses related to the prosecution and maintenance of the licensed patents and applications in-licensed.

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Umicore License Agreement

In December 2006, we entered into a license agreement with Materia. Pursuant to the agreement, Materia granted us a non-exclusive worldwide license, with the right to sublicense, under certain of its patents and patent applications covering olefin metathesis catalyst compositions, to develop, make, have made, use, sell, offer for sale, import and export certain conformationally restricted peptides, which are crosslinked, or “stapled,” peptides, for the prevention, diagnosis, treatment or control of any human or animal disease, disorder or condition. Materia subsequently assigned the license agreement to Umicore, and Umicore agreed to continue to supply catalyst for the manufacture of ALRN-6924 under the agreement.

During the term of the agreement, we have agreed to purchase all of our olefin metathesis catalyst compositions from Umicore at agreed prices, subject to potential cost-based increases over time. If Umicore is unable or unwilling to meet our requirements for such olefin metathesis catalyst compositions in terms of amount or delivery date, then a process is provided by which we can procure such olefin metathesis catalyst compositions from a third party until such time that Umicore can meet our requirements and notifies us in writing.

As of December 31, 2022, we paid non-refundable fees, consisting of an up-front technology access fee and annual maintenance payments and milestone payments, of $1.0 million. We are obligated to pay Umicore an annual maintenance fee of $50,000. We are obligated to make additional milestone payments up to a maximum of $6.25 million upon our achievement of certain specified clinical, regulatory and sales milestones with respect to ALRN-6924. The agreement obligates us to pay to Umicore up to a maximum of $6.25 million per additional licensed product upon our achievement of certain specified clinical, regulatory and sales milestones with respect to such licensed product. We must also pay Umicore tiered royalties ranging in the low single-digit percentages on aggregate worldwide net sales of licensed products, including sales by our sublicensees, on a licensed product-by-licensed product and country-by-country basis until the expiration of the last-to-expire applicable licensed patent. Our royalty obligations are subject to specified reductions in the event that we are required to obtain additional licenses from third parties and to make payments to such third parties under such licenses.

Either party may terminate the agreement upon material breach by the other party under the agreement if the breaching party does not cure such breach within a specified notice period. We may also terminate the agreement at any time with specified prior notice to Umicore.

Government Regulation and Product Approvals

Government authorities in the United States, at the federal, state and local level, and in other countries and jurisdictions, including the European Union, extensively regulate, among other things, the research, development, testing, manufacture, quality control, approval, packaging, storage, recordkeeping, labeling, advertising, promotion, distribution, pricing, reimbursement, marketing, post-approval monitoring and reporting, and import and export of pharmaceutical products. The processes for obtaining marketing approvals in the United States and in foreign countries and jurisdictions, along with subsequent compliance with applicable statutes and regulations and other regulatory authorities, require the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources.

Approval and Regulation of Drugs in the United States

In the United States, the FDA approves drug products under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FDCA, and implementing regulations. Biological products, on the other hand, are licensed by the FDA under the Public Health Service Act, or PHSA. With passage of the Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009, Congress amended the definition of “biological product” in the PHSA so as to exclude a chemically synthesized polypeptide from licensure under the PHSA. Rather, the Act provided that such products would be treated as drugs under the FDCA. Through companion guidance issued in April 2015, FDA considers any polymer composed of 40 or fewer amino acids to be a peptide and not a protein. Therefore, unless a peptide otherwise meets the statutory definition of a “biological product” (e.g., a peptide vaccine), it will be regulated as a drug product under the FDCA. Accordingly, based on this FDA guidance, we believe that products based on our stapled peptide technology will not be treated as biologics subject to approval of a biologics license application, or BLA, by the FDA, and rather will be treated as drug products subject to approval of a new drug application, or NDA, by the FDA pursuant to the FDCA.

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A company, institution, or organization which takes responsibility for the initiation and management of a clinical development program for drug products, and for their regulatory approval, is typically referred to as a sponsor. A sponsor seeking approval to market and distribute a new drug product in the United States must typically undertake the following:

Preclinical Studies

Before a sponsor begins testing a compound with potential therapeutic value in humans, the drug candidate enters the preclinical testing stage. Preclinical studies include in vitro laboratory evaluation of product chemistry, toxicity and formulation, as well as animal studies to assess the potential safety and activity of the drug for initial testing in humans and to establish a rationale for therapeutic use. These studies are generally referred to as IND-enabling studies. The conduct of preclinical studies is subject to federal regulations and requirements, including GLP regulations and standards and the United States Department of Agriculture’s Animal Welfare Act, if applicable. The results of the preclinical tests, together with manufacturing information, analytical data, any available clinical data or literature and plans for clinical trials, among other things, are submitted to the FDA as part of an IND. Some long-term preclinical testing, such as animal tests of reproductive adverse events and carcinogenicity, may continue or may be conducted after the IND is submitted.

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The IND and IRB Processes

An IND is a request for an exemption from restrictions under the FDCA that allows an unapproved drug to be shipped in interstate commerce for use in an investigational clinical trial, and also a request for FDA authorization to administer an investigational drug to humans. Such authorization must be secured prior to interstate shipment and administration of any new drug that is not the subject of an approved NDA. In support of a request for an IND, sponsors must submit a protocol for each clinical trial and any subsequent protocol amendments must be submitted to the FDA as part of the IND. In addition, the results of the preclinical tests, together with manufacturing information, analytical data, any available clinical data or literature and plans for clinical trials, among other things, are submitted to the FDA as part of an IND. The FDA requires a 30-day waiting period after the filing of each IND before clinical trials may begin. This waiting period is designed to allow the FDA to review the IND to determine whether human research subjects will be exposed to unreasonable health risks. At any time during this 30-day period, the FDA may raise concerns or questions about the conduct of the trials as outlined in the IND and impose a clinical hold. In this case, the IND sponsor and the FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before clinical trials can begin.

Following commencement of a clinical trial under an IND, based upon reported safety-related information, the FDA may also place a clinical hold or partial clinical hold on that trial. Clinical holds are imposed by the FDA whenever there is concern for patient safety and may be a result of new data, findings, or developments in clinical, nonclinical, and/or chemistry, manufacturing, and controls. A clinical hold is an order issued by the FDA to the sponsor to delay a proposed clinical investigation or to suspend an ongoing investigation. A partial clinical hold is a delay or suspension of only part of the clinical work requested under the IND. For example, a specific protocol or part of a protocol is not allowed to proceed, while other protocols may do so. No more than 30 days after imposition of a clinical hold or partial clinical hold, the FDA will provide the sponsor a written explanation of the basis for the hold. Following issuance of a clinical hold or partial clinical hold, an investigation may only resume after the FDA has notified the sponsor that the investigation may proceed. The FDA will base that determination on additional information provided by the sponsor correcting deficiencies or addressing safety concerns, thereby satisfying the FDA that the investigation can proceed.

A sponsor may choose, but is not required, to conduct a foreign clinical study under an IND. When a foreign clinical study is conducted under an IND, all IND requirements must be met unless waived. When the foreign clinical study is not conducted under an IND, the sponsor must ensure that the study complies with certain FDA regulatory requirements in order to use the study as support for an IND or application for marketing approval. Specifically, FDA has promulgated regulations governing the acceptance of foreign clinical studies not conducted under an IND, establishing that such studies will be accepted as support for an IND or application for marketing approval if the study was conducted in accordance with GCP including review and approval by an independent ethics committee, or IEC, and informed consent from subjects, and the FDA is able to validate the data from the study through an on-site inspection if FDA deems such inspection necessary. The GCP requirements encompass both ethical and data integrity standards for clinical studies. The FDA’s regulations are intended to help ensure the protection of human subjects enrolled in non-IND foreign clinical studies, as well as the quality and integrity of the resulting data. They further help ensure that non-IND foreign studies are conducted in a manner comparable to that required for IND studies. If a marketing application is based solely on foreign clinical data, the FDA requires that the foreign data be applicable to the U.S. population and U.S. medical practice; the studies must have been performed by clinical investigators of recognized competence; and the FDA must be able to validate the data through an on-site inspection or other appropriate means, if the FDA deems such an inspection to be necessary.

In addition to the foregoing IND requirements, an IRB representing each institution participating in the clinical trial must review and approve the plan for any clinical trial before it commences at that institution, and the IRB must conduct continuing review and reapprove the study at least annually. The IRB must review and approve, among other things, the study protocol and informed consent information to be provided to study subjects. An IRB must operate in compliance with FDA regulations. An IRB can suspend or terminate approval of a clinical trial at its institution, or an institution it represents, if the clinical trial is not being conducted in accordance with the IRB’s requirements or if the product candidate has been associated with unexpected serious harm to patients.

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Additionally, some trials are overseen by an independent group of qualified experts organized by the trial sponsor, known as a data safety monitoring board, or DSMB, or committee. This group provides authorization for whether or not a trial may move forward at designated check points based on access that only the group maintains to available data from the study. Suspension or termination of development during any phase of clinical trials can occur if it is determined that the participants or patients are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk. Suspension or termination decisions, for reasons unrelated to patient safety, may be made by us based on evolving business objectives and/or competitive climate.

Expanded Access to an Investigational Drug for Treatment Use

Expanded access, sometimes called “compassionate use,” is the use of investigational new drug products outside of clinical trials to treat patients with serious or immediately life-threatening diseases or conditions when there are no comparable or satisfactory alternative treatment options. The rules and regulations related to expanded access are intended to improve access to investigational drugs for patients who may benefit from investigational therapies. FDA regulations allow access to investigational drugs under an IND by the company or the treating physician for treatment purposes on a case-by-case basis for: individual patients (single-patient IND applications for treatment in emergency settings and non-emergency settings); intermediate-size patient populations; and larger populations for use of the drug under a treatment protocol or Treatment IND application.

When considering an IND application for expanded access to an investigational product with the purpose of treating a patient or a group of patients, the sponsor and treating physicians or investigators will determine suitability when all of the following criteria apply: patient(s) have a serious or immediately life-threatening disease or condition, and there is no comparable or satisfactory alternative therapy to diagnose, monitor, or treat the disease or condition; the potential patient benefit justifies the potential risks of the treatment and the potential risks are not unreasonable in the context or condition to be treated; and the expanded use of the investigational drug for the requested treatment will not interfere initiation, conduct or completion of clinical investigations that could support marketing approval of the product or otherwise compromise the potential development of the product.

There is no obligation for a sponsor to make its investigational products available for expanded access; however, as required by amendments to the FDCA included in the 21st Century Cures Act, or the Cures Act, passed in 2016, if a sponsor has a policy regarding how it responds to expanded access requests with respect to product candidates in development to treat serious diseases or conditions, it must make that policy publicly available. Sponsors are required to make such policies publicly available upon the earlier of initiation of a Phase 2 or Phase 3 study; or 15 days after the drug or biologic receives designation as a breakthrough therapy, fast track product, or regenerative medicine advanced therapy.

In addition, on May 30, 2018, the Right to Try Act, was signed into law. The law, among other things, provides a federal framework for certain patients to access certain investigational new drug products that have completed a Phase I clinical trial and that are undergoing investigation for FDA approval. Under certain circumstances, eligible patients can seek treatment without enrolling in clinical trials and without obtaining FDA permission under the FDA expanded access program. There is no obligation for a drug manufacturer to make its drug products available to eligible patients as a result of the Right to Try Act, but the manufacturer must develop an internal policy and respond to patient requests according to that policy.

Human Clinical Studies in Support of an NDA

Clinical trials involve the administration of the investigational product to human subjects under the supervision of qualified investigators in accordance with GCP requirements, which include, among other things, the requirement that all research subjects provide their informed consent in writing before their participation in any clinical trial. Clinical trials are conducted under written study protocols detailing, among other things, the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the objectives of the study, the parameters to be used in monitoring safety and the effectiveness criteria to be evaluated.

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Human clinical trials are typically conducted in the following sequential phases, which may overlap or be combined:

A clinical trial may combine the elements of more than one phase and the FDA often requires more than one Phase 3 clinical trial to support marketing approval of a product candidate. A company’s designation of a clinical trial as being of a particular phase is not necessarily indicative that the study will be sufficient to satisfy the FDA requirements of that phase because this determination cannot be made until the protocol and data have been submitted to and reviewed by the FDA. Moreover, as noted above, a pivotal trial is a clinical trial that is believed to satisfy FDA requirements for the evaluation of a product candidate’s safety and efficacy such that it can be used, alone or with other pivotal or non-pivotal trials, to support regulatory approval. Generally, pivotal trials are Phase 3 clinical trials, but they may be Phase 2 clinical trials if the design provides a well-controlled and reliable assessment of clinical benefit, particularly in an area of unmet medical need.

In December 2022, with the passage of Food and Drug Omnibus Reform Act, or FDORA, Congress required sponsors to develop and submit a diversity action plan for each phase 3 clinical trial or any other “pivotal study” of a new drug or biological product. These plans are meant to encourage the enrollment of more diverse patient populations in late-stage clinical trials of FDA-regulated products. Specifically, actions plans must include the sponsor’s goals for enrollment, the underlying rationale for those goals, and an explanation of how the sponsor intends to meet them. In addition to these requirements, the legislation directs the FDA to issue new guidance on diversity action plans.

Progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials must be submitted at least annually to the FDA and more frequently if unexpected serious adverse events suspected of being related to the drug occur. IND safety reports must be submitted to the FDA for serious and unexpected suspected adverse reactions, or SUSARs, occurring during the trial; and any clinically important increase in the number or severity of serious suspected adverse reactions over that listed in the protocol or investigator brochure. In addition, findings from other clinical studies or animal or in vitro testing that suggest a significant risk in humans exposed to the drug should also be reported. Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 clinical trials may not be completed successfully within any specified period, or at all.

In March 2022, the FDA released a final guidance entitled “Expansion Cohorts: Use in First-In-Human Clinical Trials to Expedite Development of Oncology Drugs and Biologics,” which outlines how developers can utilize an adaptive trial design commonly referred to as a seamless trial design in early stages of oncology product development (i.e., the first-in-human clinical trial) to compress the traditional three phases of trials into one continuous trial called an expansion cohort trial. Information to support the design of individual expansion cohorts is included in IND applications and assessed by the FDA. Expansion cohort trials can potentially bring efficiency to product development and reduce developmental costs and time.

Finally, sponsors of clinical trials are required to register and disclose certain clinical trial information on a public registry (clinicaltrials.gov) maintained by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, or NIH. In particular,

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information related to the product, patient population, phase of investigation, study sites and investigators and other aspects of the clinical trial is made public as part of the registration of the clinical trial. The NIH’s Final Rule on registration and reporting requirements for clinical trials became effective in 2017, and both the NIH and the FDA have recently signaled the government’s willingness to begin enforcing those requirements against non-compliant clinical trial sponsors. The failure to submit clinical trial information to clinicaltrials.gov, as required, is a prohibited act under the FDCA with violations subject to potential civil monetary penalties of up to $10,000 for each day the violation continues. Although the FDA has historically not enforced these reporting requirements due to HHS’s long delay in issuing final implementing regulations, those regulations have now been issued and the FDA has issued several Notices of Noncompliance to manufacturers since April 2021.

Manufacturing and Other Regulatory Requirements

Concurrent with clinical trials, companies often complete additional animal studies and must also develop additional information about the chemistry and physical characteristics of the drug as well as finalize a process for manufacturing the product in commercial quantities in accordance with cGMP requirements. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the drug candidate and, among other things, must develop methods for testing the identity, strength, quality, and purity of the final drug. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the drug candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its shelf life.

Specifically, the FDA’s regulations require that pharmaceutical products be manufactured in specific approved facilities and in accordance with cGMPs. The cGMP regulations include requirements relating to organization of personnel, buildings and facilities, equipment, control of components and product containers and closures, production and process controls, packaging and labeling controls, holding and distribution, laboratory controls, records and reports and returned or salvaged products. Manufacturers and other entities involved in the manufacture and distribution of approved pharmaceuticals are required to register their establishments with the FDA and some state agencies, and they are subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA for compliance with cGMPs and other requirements. Inspections must follow a “risk-based schedule” that may result in certain establishments being inspected more frequently. Manufacturers may also have to provide, on request, electronic or physical records regarding their establishments. Delaying, denying, limiting, or refusing inspection by the FDA may lead to a product being deemed to be adulterated. Changes to the manufacturing process, specifications or container closure system for an approved product are strictly regulated and often require prior FDA approval before being implemented. The FDA’s regulations also require, among other things, the investigation and correction of any deviations from cGMP and the imposition of reporting and documentation requirements upon the sponsor and any third-party manufacturers involved in producing the approved product.

The PREVENT Pandemics Act, which was enacted in December 2022, clarifies that foreign drug manufacturing establishments are subject to registration and listing requirements even if a drug or biologic undergoes further manufacture, preparation, propagation, compounding, or processing at a separate establishment outside the United States prior to being imported or offered for import into the United States.

Pediatric Studies

Under the Pediatric Research Equity Act, or PREA, of 2003, an NDA or supplement thereto must contain data that are adequate to assess the safety and effectiveness of the drug product for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations, and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. With enactment of the FDASIA in 2012, sponsors must also submit pediatric study plans (if required under PREA), before the date on which the sponsor submits the required assessments or investigation and no later than either 60 calendar days after the date of the end-of-phase 2 meeting or such other time as agreed upon between FDA and the sponsor. Those plans must contain an outline of the proposed pediatric study or studies the sponsor plans to conduct, including study objectives and design, any deferral or waiver requests, and other information required by regulation. The sponsor, the FDA, and the FDA’s internal review committee must then review the information submitted, consult with each other, and agree upon a final plan. The FDA or the sponsor may request an amendment to the plan at any time.

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For drugs intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition, the FDA must, upon the request of a sponsor, meet to discuss preparation of the initial pediatric study plan or to discuss deferral or waiver of pediatric assessments.

The FDA Reauthorization Act of 2017 established new requirements to govern certain molecularly targeted cancer indications. Any company that submits an NDA three years after the date of enactment of that statute must submit pediatric assessments with the NDA if the drug is intended for the treatment of an adult cancer and is directed at a molecular target that the FDA determines to be substantially relevant to the growth or progression of a pediatric cancer. The investigation must be designed to yield clinically meaningful pediatric study data regarding the dosing, safety and preliminary efficacy to inform pediatric labeling for the product.

The FDA may, on its own initiative or at the request of the sponsor, grant deferrals for submission of some or all pediatric data until after approval of the product for use in adults, or full or partial waivers from the pediatric data requirements. A deferral may be granted for several reasons, including a finding that the product or therapeutic candidate is ready for approval for use in adults before pediatric trials are complete or that additional safety or effectiveness data needs to be collected before the pediatric trials begin. Pursuant to the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act of 2012, or FDASIA, the FDA must send a PREA Non-Compliance letter to sponsors who have failed to submit their pediatric assessments required under PREA, have failed to seek or obtain a deferral or deferral extension or have failed to request approval for a required pediatric formulation. FDASIA further requires the FDA to publicly post the PREA Non-Compliance letter and sponsor’s response.

Unless otherwise required by regulation, the pediatric data requirements do not apply to products with orphan designation, although the FDA has recently taken steps to limit what it considers abuse of this statutory exemption in PREA by announcing that it does not intend to grant any additional orphan drug designations for rare pediatric subpopulations of what is otherwise a common disease. The FDA also maintains a list of diseases that are exempt from PREA requirements due to low prevalence of disease in the pediatric population.

Submission and Filing of an NDA

Assuming successful completion of required clinical testing and other requirements, the results of the preclinical studies and clinical trials, together with detailed information relating to the product’s chemistry, manufacture, controls and proposed labeling, among other things, are submitted to the FDA as part of an NDA requesting approval to market the drug product for one or more indications. Under federal law, the submission of NDAs is subject to an application user fee, which for federal fiscal year 2023 is $3,242,026, unless a partial or full fee waiver is granted as may occur for the first NDA of a small business or an NDA for drug intended to treat a rare, or “orphan” disease. The sponsor of an approved NDA may also be subject to an annual program fee, which for federal fiscal year 2023 is $393,933 per product, per approved indication up to 5 indications.

The FDA conducts a preliminary review of an NDA within 60 days of its receipt and informs the sponsor by that time or before whether the application is sufficiently complete to permit substantive review. In the event that the FDA determines an application does not satisfy this standard, it will issue a Refuse to File determination to the sponsor. The FDA may request additional information rather than accept an NDA for filing. In this event, the application must be resubmitted with the additional information. The resubmitted application is also subject to review before the FDA accepts it for filing.

Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth substantive review. The FDA has agreed to specified performance goals in the review process of NDAs. Most such applications are meant to be reviewed within ten months from the filing date, and most applications for “priority review” products are meant to be reviewed within six months of the filing date. The review process and the Prescription Drug User Fee Act, or PDUFA, goal date may be extended by the FDA for three additional months to consider new information or clarification provided by the sponsor to address an outstanding deficiency identified by the FDA following the original submission. Despite these review goals, it is not uncommon for FDA review of an application to extend beyond PDUFA goal date.

In connection with its review of an NDA, the FDA typically will inspect the facility or facilities where the product is or will be manufactured. These pre-approval inspections may cover all facilities associated with an NDA

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submission, including drug component manufacturing (such as active pharmaceutical ingredients), finished drug product manufacturing, and control testing laboratories. The FDA will not approve an application unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities are in compliance with cGMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specifications. Additionally, before approving an NDA, the FDA will typically inspect one or more clinical sites to assure compliance with GCP and the integrity of the data relied upon in the NDA. Under the FDA Reauthorization Act of 2017, the FDA must implement a protocol to expedite review of responses to inspection reports pertaining to certain applications, including applications for products in shortage or those for which approval is dependent on remediation of conditions identified in the inspection report. With passage of FDORA, Congress clarified FDA’s authority to conduct inspections by expressly permitting inspection of facilities involved in the preparation, conduct, or analysis of clinical and non-clinical studies submitted to FDA as well as other persons holding study records or involved in the study process.

In addition, as a condition of approval, the FDA may require a sponsor to develop a REMS. REMS use risk minimization strategies beyond the professional labeling to ensure that the benefits of the product outweigh the potential risks. To determine whether a REMS is needed, the FDA will consider the size of the population likely to use the product, seriousness of the disease, expected benefit of the product, expected duration of treatment, seriousness of known or potential adverse events, and whether the product is a new molecular entity. REMS can include medication guides, physician communication plans for healthcare professionals, and elements to assure safe use, or ETASU. ETASU may include, but are not limited to, special training or certification for prescribing or dispensing, dispensing only under certain circumstances, special monitoring, and the use of patient registries. The FDA may require a REMS before approval or post-approval if it becomes aware of a serious risk associated with use of the product. The requirement for a REMS can materially affect the potential market and profitability of a product.

Finally, the FDA is required to refer an application for a novel drug to an advisory committee or explain why such referral was not made. Typically, an advisory committee is a panel of independent experts, including clinicians and other scientific experts, that reviews, evaluates and provides a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions. The FDA is not bound by the recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations carefully when making decisions.

Expedited Review Programs

The FDA is authorized to expedite the review of applications in several ways. None of these expedited programs changes the standards for approval but each may help expedite the development or approval process governing product candidates

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The FDA’s Decision on an NDA

The FDA reviews an NDA to determine, among other things, whether the candidate product is safe and whether it is effective for its intended use(s), with the latter determination being made on the basis of substantial evidence. The FDA has interpreted this evidentiary standard to require at least two adequate and well-controlled clinical investigations to establish effectiveness of a new product. Under certain circumstances, however, the FDA has indicated that a single trial with certain characteristics and additional information may satisfy this standard. Ultimately, the FDA will determine whether the expected benefits of the drug product outweigh its potential risks to patients. On the basis of the FDA’s evaluation of the NDA and accompanying information, including the results of the inspection of the manufacturing facilities, the FDA will issue either a complete response letter, or CRL, or an approval letter.

A CRL generally outlines the deficiencies in the submission and may require substantial additional testing or information in order for the FDA to reconsider the application. If and when those deficiencies have been addressed to the FDA’s satisfaction in a resubmission of the NDA, the FDA will issue an approval letter. The FDA has committed to reviewing such resubmissions in two or six months depending on the type of information included. Even with submission of this additional information, the FDA ultimately may decide that the application does not satisfy the regulatory criteria for approval. If a CRL is issued, the sponsor will have one year to respond to the deficiencies identified by the FDA, at which time the FDA can deem the application withdrawn or, in its discretion, grant the sponsor an additional six month extension to respond. For those seeking to challenge FDA’s CRL decision, the agency has indicated that sponsors may request a formal hearing on the CRL or they may file a request for reconsideration or a request for a formal dispute resolution.

An approval letter, on the other hand, authorizes commercial marketing of the product with specific prescribing information for specific indications. The FDA may limit the approved indications for use for the

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product, require that contraindications, warnings or precautions be included in the product labeling, require that post-approval studies, including Phase 4 clinical trials, be conducted to further assess the drug’s safety after approval, require testing and surveillance programs to monitor the product after commercialization, or impose other conditions, including distribution restrictions or other risk management mechanisms, including REMS, which can materially affect the potential market and profitability of the product. The FDA may prevent or limit further marketing of a product based on the results of post-market studies or surveillance programs. After approval, many types of changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications, manufacturing changes and additional labeling claims, are subject to further testing requirements and FDA review and approval.

Post-Approval Requirements

Drugs manufactured or distributed pursuant to FDA approvals are subject to pervasive and continuing regulation by the FDA, including, among other things, requirements relating to recordkeeping, periodic reporting, product sampling and distribution, advertising and promotion and reporting of adverse experiences with the product. After approval, most changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications or other labeling claims, are subject to prior FDA review and approval. There also are continuing, annual user fee requirements for any marketed products and the establishments at which such products are manufactured, as well as new application fees for supplemental applications with clinical data.

In addition, drug manufacturers and other entities involved in the manufacture and distribution of approved drugs are required to register their establishments with the FDA and state agencies, and are subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA and these state agencies for compliance with cGMP requirements. Changes to the manufacturing process are strictly regulated and often require prior FDA approval before being implemented. FDA regulations also require investigation and correction of any deviations from cGMP and impose reporting and documentation requirements upon the sponsor and any third-party manufacturers that the sponsor may decide to use. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money, and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain cGMP compliance.

Once an approval is granted, the FDA may withdraw the approval if compliance with regulatory requirements and standards is not maintained or if problems occur after the product reaches the market. Later discovery of previously unknown problems with a product, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or with manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in revisions to the approved labeling to add new safety information; imposition of post-market studies or clinical trials to assess new safety risks; or imposition of distribution or other restrictions under a REMS program. Other potential consequences include, among other things:

The FDA strictly regulates marketing, labeling, advertising and promotion of products that are placed on the market. Drugs may be promoted only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved label. The FDA and other agencies actively enforce the laws and regulations prohibiting the promotion of off-label uses, and a company that is found to have improperly promoted off-label uses may be subject to significant liability. In the United States, health care professionals are generally permitted to prescribe drugs for such uses not described in the drug’s labeling, known as off-label uses, because the FDA does not regulate the practice of medicine. However, FDA regulations impose rigorous restrictions on manufacturers’ communications, prohibiting the promotion of off-label uses. It may be permissible, under very specific, narrow conditions, for a manufacturer to engage in nonpromotional, non-misleading communication regarding off-label information, such as distributing

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scientific or medical journal information. In September 2021, the FDA published final regulations which describe the types of evidence that the agency will consider in determining the intended use of a drug product.

It may be permissible, under very specific, narrow conditions, for a manufacturer to engage in nonpromotional, non-misleading communication regarding off-label information, such as distributing scientific or medical journal information. Moreover, with passage of the Pre-Approval Information Exchange Act, or PIE Act, in December 2022, sponsors of products that have not been approved may proactively communicate to payors certain information about products in development to help expedite patient access upon product approval. Previously, such communications were permitted under FDA guidance but the new legislation explicitly provides protection to sponsors who convey certain information about products in development to payors, including unapproved uses of approved products.

In addition, the distribution of prescription pharmaceutical products is subject to the Prescription Drug Marketing Act, or PDMA, and its implementing regulations, as well as the Drug Supply Chain Security Act, or DSCA, which regulate the distribution and tracing of prescription drug samples at the federal level, and set minimum standards for the regulation of distributors by the states. The PDMA, its implementing regulations and state laws limit the distribution of prescription pharmaceutical product samples and impose requirements to ensure accountability in distribution and to identify and remove counterfeit and other illegitimate products from the market.

Abbreviated New Drug Applications for Generic Drugs

In 1984, with passage of the Hatch-Waxman Amendments to the FDCA, Congress established an abbreviated regulatory scheme allowing the FDA to approve generic drugs that are shown to contain the same active ingredients as, and to be bioequivalent to, drugs previously approved by the FDA pursuant to NDAs. To obtain approval of a generic drug, an applicant must submit an abbreviated new drug application, or ANDA, to the agency. An ANDA is a comprehensive submission that contains, among other things, data and information pertaining to the active pharmaceutical ingredient, bioequivalence, drug product formulation, specifications and stability of the generic drug, as well as analytical methods, manufacturing process validation data and quality control procedures. ANDAs are “abbreviated” because they generally do not include preclinical and clinical data to demonstrate safety and effectiveness. Instead, in support of such applications, a generic manufacturer may rely on the preclinical and clinical testing previously conducted for a drug product previously approved under an NDA, known as the reference-listed drug, or RLD.

Specifically, in order for an ANDA to be approved, the FDA must find that the generic version is identical to the RLD with respect to the active ingredients, the route of administration, the dosage form, and the strength of the drug. At the same time, the FDA must also determine that the generic drug is “bioequivalent” to the innovator drug. Under the statute, a generic drug is bioequivalent to a RLD if “the rate and extent of absorption of the drug do not show a significant difference from the rate and extent of absorption of the listed drug.

Upon approval of an ANDA, the FDA indicates whether the generic product is “therapeutically equivalent” to the RLD in its publication “Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluations,” also referred to as the “Orange Book.” Physicians and pharmacists consider a therapeutic equivalent generic drug to be fully substitutable for the RLD. In addition, by operation of certain state laws and numerous health insurance programs, the FDA’s designation of therapeutic equivalence often results in substitution of the generic drug without the knowledge or consent of either the prescribing physician or patient.

Under the Hatch-Waxman Amendments, the FDA may not approve an ANDA until any applicable period of non-patent exclusivity for the RLD has expired. The FDCA provides a period of five years of regulatory exclusivity for a new drug containing a new chemical entity. For the purposes of this provision, an NCE is a drug that contains no active moiety that has previously been approved by the FDA in any other NDA. This interpretation of the FDCA by the FDA was confirmed with enactment of the Ensuring Innovation Act in April 2021. An active moiety is the molecule or ion responsible for the physiological or pharmacological action of the drug substance. In cases where such NCE exclusivity has been granted, an ANDA or 505(b)(2) application may not be filed with the FDA until the expiration of five years unless the submission is accompanied by a Paragraph IV certification, in which case the applicant may submit its application four years following the original product approval.

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The FDCA also provides for a period of three years of regulatory exclusivity if the NDA includes reports of one or more new clinical investigations, other than bioavailability or bioequivalence studies, that were conducted by or for the applicant and are essential to the approval of the application. This three-year exclusivity period often protects changes to a previously approved drug product, such as a new dosage form, route of administration, combination or indication. Three-year exclusivity would be available for a drug product that contains a previously approved active moiety, provided the statutory requirement for a new clinical investigation is satisfied. Unlike five-year NCE exclusivity, an award of three-year exclusivity does not block the FDA from accepting ANDAs and 505(b)(2) applications seeking approval for generic versions of the drug as of the date of approval of the original drug product. The FDA typically makes decisions about awards of data exclusivity shortly before a product is approved.

The FDA must establish a priority review track for certain generic drugs, requiring the FDA to review a drug application within eight (8) months for a drug that has three (3) or fewer approved drugs listed in the Orange Book and is no longer protected by any patent or regulatory exclusivities, or is on the FDA’s drug shortage list. The new legislation also authorizes FDA to expedite review of ‘‘competitor generic therapies’’ or drugs with inadequate generic competition, including holding meetings with or providing advice to the drug sponsor prior to submission of the application.

Hatch-Waxman Patent Certification and the 30-Month Stay

Upon approval of an NDA or a supplement thereto, NDA sponsors are required to list with the FDA each patent with claims that cover the applicant’s product or an approved method of using the product. Each of the patents listed by the NDA sponsor is published in the Orange Book. The FDA’s regulations governing patent listings were largely codified into law with enactment of the Orange Book Modernization Act, or the Orange Book, in January 2021. When an ANDA applicant files its application with the FDA, the applicant is required to certify to the FDA concerning any patents listed for the reference product in the Orange Book, except for patents covering methods of use for which the ANDA applicant is not seeking approval. To the extent that the Section 505(b)(2) applicant is relying on studies conducted for an already approved product, the applicant is required to certify to the FDA concerning any patents listed for the approved product in the Orange Book to the same extent that an ANDA applicant would.

Specifically, the applicant must certify with respect to each patent that:

A certification that the new product will not infringe the already approved product’s listed patents or that such patents are invalid or unenforceable is called a Paragraph IV certification. If the applicant does not challenge the listed patents or indicates that it is not seeking approval of a patented method of use, the application will not be approved until all the listed patents claiming the referenced product have expired (other than method of use patents involving indications for which the applicant is not seeking approval).

If the ANDA or 505(b)(2) applicant has provided a Paragraph IV certification to the FDA, the applicant must also send notice of the Paragraph IV certification to the NDA and patent holders once the ANDA or 505(b)(2) application has been accepted for filing by the FDA. The NDA and patent holders may then initiate a patent infringement lawsuit in response to the notice of the Paragraph IV certification. The filing of a patent infringement lawsuit within 45 days after the receipt of a Paragraph IV certification automatically prevents the FDA from approving the application until the earlier of 30 months after the receipt of the Paragraph IV notice, expiration of the patent, or a decision in the infringement case that is favorable to the applicant. The ANDA or 505(b)(2) application also will not be approved until any applicable non-patent exclusivity listed in the Orange Book for the branded reference drug has expired.

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Pediatric Exclusivity

Pediatric exclusivity is another type of non-patent exclusivity in the United States and, if granted, provides for the attachment of an additional six months of regulatory exclusivity to the term of any existing unexpired patent or regulatory exclusivity, including orphan drug exclusivity. This six-month exclusivity may be granted if an NDA sponsor submits pediatric data that fairly respond to a written request from the FDA for such data about the active moiety in the product. The data do not need to show the product to be effective in the pediatric population studied; rather, if the clinical trial is deemed to fairly respond to the FDA’s request, the additional protection is granted. If reports of requested pediatric studies are submitted to and accepted by the FDA within the statutory time limits, whatever statutory or regulatory periods of exclusivity or patent protection cover the product are extended by six months. This is not a patent term extension, but it effectively extends the regulatory period during which the FDA cannot approve another application.

Orphan Drug Designation and Exclusivity

Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may designate a drug product as an “orphan drug” if it is intended to treat a rare disease or condition (generally meaning that it affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or more in cases in which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making a drug product available in the United States for treatment of the disease or condition will be recovered from sales of the product). A company must request orphan product designation before submitting an NDA. If the request is granted, the FDA will disclose the identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential use. Orphan product designation does not convey any advantage in or shorten the duration of the regulatory review and approval process, although it does convey certain advantages such as tax benefits and exemption from PDUFA application fee.

If a product with orphan status receives the first FDA approval for the disease or condition for which it has such designation or for a select indication or use within the rare disease or condition for which it was designated, the product generally will receive orphan product exclusivity. Orphan product exclusivity means that the FDA may not approve any other applications for the same product for the same indication for seven years, except in certain limited circumstances. If a drug or drug product designated as an orphan product ultimately receives marketing approval for an indication broader than what was designated in its orphan product application, it may not be entitled to exclusivity. Further, the FDA may approve more than one product for the same orphan indication or disease as long as the products contain different active ingredients. Moreover, competitors may receive approval of different products for the indication for which the orphan product has exclusivity or obtain approval for the same product but for a different indication for which the orphan product has exclusivity.

Orphan exclusivity will not bar approval of another product under certain circumstances, including if a subsequent product with the same active ingredient for the same indication is shown to be clinically superior to the approved product on the basis of greater efficacy or safety, or providing a major contribution to patient care, or if the company with orphan drug exclusivity is not able to meet market demand. This is the case despite an earlier court opinion holding that the Orphan Drug Act unambiguously required the FDA to recognize orphan exclusivity regardless of a showing of clinical superiority. Under Omnibus legislation signed by President Trump on December 27, 2020, the requirement for a product to show clinical superiority applies to drug products that received orphan drug designation before enactment of amendments to the FDCA in 2017 but have not yet been approved by the FDA.

In September 2021, the Court of Appeals for the 11th Circuit held that, for the purpose of determining the scope of market exclusivity, the term “same disease or condition” in the statute means the designated “rare disease or condition” and could not be interpreted by the FDA to mean the “indication or use.” Thus, the court concluded, orphan drug exclusivity applies to the entire designated disease or condition rather than the “indication or use.” Although there have been legislative proposals to overrule this decision, they have not been enacted into law. On January 23, 2023, FDA announced that, in matters beyond the scope of that court order, FDA will continue to apply its existing regulations tying orphan-drug exclusivity to the uses or indications for which the orphan drug was approved.

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Patent Term Restoration and Extension

A patent claiming a new drug product may be eligible for a limited patent term extension under the Hatch-Waxman Act, which permits a patent restoration of up to five years for patent term lost during product development and the FDA regulatory review. The restoration period granted is typically one-half the time between the effective date of an IND clearing the clinical investigations and the submission date of an NDA, plus the time between the submission date of an NDA and the ultimate approval date. Patent term restoration cannot be used to extend the remaining term of a patent past a total of 14 years from the product’s approval date. Only one patent applicable to an approved drug product is eligible for the extension, and the application for the extension must be submitted prior to the expiration of the patent in question. A patent that covers multiple drugs for which approval is sought can only be extended in connection with one of the approvals. The USPTO reviews and approves the application for any patent term extension or restoration in consultation with the FDA.

FDA Approval and Regulation of Companion Diagnostics

If safe and effective use of a therapeutic depends on an in vitro diagnostic, then the FDA generally will require approval or clearance of that diagnostic, known as a companion diagnostic, at the same time that the FDA approves the therapeutic product. In August 2014, the FDA issued final guidance clarifying the requirements that will apply to approval of therapeutic products and in vitro companion diagnostics. According to the guidance, for novel drugs, a companion diagnostic device and its corresponding therapeutic should be approved or cleared contemporaneously by the FDA for the use indicated in the therapeutic product’s labeling. In July 2016, the FDA issued a draft guidance intended to assist sponsors of the drug therapeutic and in vitro companion diagnostic device on issues related to co-development of the products. In April 2020, the FDA issued additional guidance which describes considerations for the development and labeling of companion diagnostic devices to support the indicated uses of multiple drug or biological oncology products, when appropriate.

The 2014 guidance also explains that a companion diagnostic device used to make treatment decisions in clinical trials of a biologic product candidate generally will be considered an investigational device, unless it is employed for an intended use for which the device is already approved or cleared. If used to make critical treatment decisions, such as patient selection, the diagnostic device generally will be considered a significant risk device under the FDA’s Investigational Device Exemption, or IDE, regulations. Thus, the sponsor of the diagnostic device will be required to comply with the IDE regulations. According to the guidance, if a diagnostic device and a product are to be studied together to support their respective approvals, both products can be studied in the same investigational study, if the study meets both the requirements of the IDE regulations and the IND regulations. The guidance provides that depending on the details of the study plan and subjects, a sponsor may seek to submit an IND application alone, or both an IND- and IDE-application.

Under the FDCA, in vitro diagnostics, including companion diagnostics, are regulated as medical devices. In the United States, the FDCA and its implementing regulations, and other federal and state statutes and regulations govern, among other things, medical device design and development, preclinical and clinical testing, premarket clearance or approval, registration and listing, manufacturing, labeling, storage, advertising and promotion, sales and distribution, export and import, and post-market surveillance. Unless an exemption applies, diagnostic tests require marketing clearance or approval from the FDA prior to commercial distribution. The two primary types of FDA marketing authorization applicable to a medical device are premarket notification, also called 510(k) clearance, and premarket approval, or PMA approval. The FDA has generally required in vitro companion diagnostics intended to select the patients who will respond to cancer treatment to obtain a PMA, for that diagnostic simultaneously with approval of the drug. We expect that any companion diagnostic developed for use with ALRN-6924 would utilize the PMA pathway.

The PMA process, including the gathering of clinical and preclinical data and the submission to and review by the FDA, can take several years or longer. It involves a rigorous premarket review during which the sponsor must prepare and provide the FDA with reasonable assurance of the device’s safety and effectiveness and information about the device and its components regarding, among other things, device design, manufacturing and labeling. PMA applications are subject to fees for medical device product review; for federal fiscal year 2023, the standard fee for review of a PMA is $441,547 and the small business fee is $110,387.

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In addition, PMAs for certain devices must generally include the results from extensive preclinical and adequate and well-controlled clinical trials to establish the safety and effectiveness of the device for each indication for which FDA approval is sought. In particular, for a diagnostic, a PMA application typically requires data regarding analytical and clinical validation studies. As part of the PMA review, the FDA will typically inspect the manufacturer’s facilities for compliance with the Quality System Regulation, or QSR, which imposes elaborate testing, control, documentation and other quality assurance requirements.

PMA approval is not guaranteed, and the FDA may ultimately respond to a PMA submission with a not approvable determination based on deficiencies in the application and require additional clinical trial or other data that may be expensive and time-consuming to generate and that can substantially delay approval. If the FDA’s evaluation of the PMA application is favorable, the FDA typically issues an approvable letter requiring the sponsor’s agreement to specific conditions, such as changes in labeling, or specific additional information, such as submission of final labeling, in order to secure final approval of the PMA. If the FDA’s evaluation of the PMA or manufacturing facilities is not favorable, the FDA will deny approval of the PMA or issue a not approvable letter. A not approvable letter will outline the deficiencies in the application and, where practical, will identify what is necessary to make the PMA approvable. The FDA may also determine that additional clinical trials are necessary, in which case the PMA approval may be delayed for several months or years while the trials are conducted and then the data submitted in an amendment to the PMA. If the FDA concludes that the applicable criteria have been met, the FDA will issue a PMA for the approved indications, which can be more limited than those originally sought by the sponsor. The PMA can include post-approval conditions that the FDA believes necessary to ensure the safety and effectiveness of the device, including, among other things, restrictions on labeling, promotion, sale and distribution. Once granted, PMA approval may be withdrawn by the FDA if compliance with post approval requirements, conditions of approval or other regulatory standards are not maintained or problems are identified following initial marketing.

After a device is placed on the market, it remains subject to significant regulatory requirements. Medical devices may be marketed only for the uses and indications for which they are cleared or approved. Device manufacturers must also establish registration and device listings with the FDA. A medical device manufacturer’s manufacturing processes and those of its suppliers are required to comply with the applicable portions of the QSR, which cover the methods and documentation of the design, testing, production, processes, controls, quality assurance, labeling, packaging and shipping of medical devices. Domestic facility records and manufacturing processes are subject to periodic unscheduled inspections by the FDA. The FDA also may inspect foreign facilities that export products to the U.S.

Federal and State Data Privacy Laws

There are multiple privacy and data security laws that may impact our business activities in the United States and in other countries where we conduct trials or where we may do business in the future. These laws are evolving and may increase both our obligations and our regulatory risks in the future. In the health care industry generally, under the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, or HIPAA, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or HHS, has issued regulations to protect the privacy and security of protected health information used or disclosed by covered entities including certain healthcare providers, health plans and healthcare clearinghouses. HIPAA also regulates standardization of data content, codes and formats used in healthcare transactions and standardization of identifiers for health plans and providers. HIPAA also imposes certain obligations on the business associates of covered entities that obtain protected health information in providing services to or on behalf of covered entities. HIPAA may apply to us in certain circumstances and may also apply to our business partners in ways that may impact our relationships with them. Our clinical trials are regulated by the Common Rule, which also includes specific privacy-related provisions. In addition to federal privacy regulations, there are a number of state laws governing confidentiality and security of health information that may be applicable to our business. In addition to possible federal civil and criminal penalties for HIPAA violations, state attorneys general are authorized to file civil actions for damages or injunctions in federal courts to enforce HIPAA and seek attorney’s fees and costs associated with pursuing federal civil actions. In addition, state attorneys general (along with private plaintiffs) have brought civil actions seeking injunctions and damages resulting from alleged violations of HIPAA’s privacy and security rules. State attorneys general also have authority to enforce state privacy and security laws. New laws and regulations governing privacy and security may be adopted in the future as well.

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Regulation Outside the United States

Regulation and Procedures Governing Approval of Medicinal Products in the European Union

In order to market any product outside of the United States, a company must also comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements of other countries and jurisdictions regarding quality, safety and efficacy and governing, among other things, clinical trials, marketing authorization, commercial sales and distribution of products. Whether or not it obtains FDA approval for a product, the company would need to obtain the necessary approvals by the comparable foreign regulatory authorities before it can commence clinical trials or marketing of the product in those countries or jurisdictions. Specifically, the process governing approval of medicinal products in the European Union generally follows the same lines as in the United States and involves satisfactorily completing preclinical studies and adequate and well-controlled clinical trials to establish the safety and efficacy of the product for each proposed indication, as well as the submission to the relevant competent authorities of a marketing authorization application, or MAA, and actual granting of a marketing authorization by these authorities before the product can be marketed and sold in the European Union.

Clinical Trial Approval

On January 31, 2022, the new Clinical Trials Regulation (EU) No 536/2014 became effective in the European Union and replaced the prior Clinical Trials Directive 2001/20/EC. The new regulation aims at simplifying and streamlining the authorization, conduct and transparency of clinical trials in the European Union. Under the new coordinated procedure for the approval of clinical trials, the sponsor of a clinical trial to be conducted in more than one Member State of the European Union, or EU Member State, will only be required to submit a single application for approval. The submission will be made through the Clinical Trials Information System, a new clinical trials portal overseen by the European Medicines Agency, or EMA, and available to clinical trial sponsors, competent authorities of the EU Member States and the public.

The new Clinical Trials Regulation aims to simplify and streamline the approval of clinical trial in the European Union. The main characteristics of the regulation include: a streamlined application procedure via a single entry point, the European Union portal; a single set of documents to be prepared and submitted for the application as well as simplified reporting procedures that will spare sponsors from submitting broadly identical information separately to various bodies and different member states; a harmonized procedure for the assessment of applications for clinical trials, which is divided in two parts. Part I is assessed jointly by all member states concerned. Part II is assessed separately by each member state concerned; strictly defined deadlines for the assessment of clinical trial applications; and the involvement of the ethics committees in the assessment procedure in accordance with the national law of the member state concerned but within the overall timelines defined by the Clinical Trials Regulation.

The new regulation did not change the preexisting requirement that a sponsor must obtain prior approval from the competent national authority of the EU Member State in which the clinical trial is to be conducted. If the clinical trial is conducted in different EU Member States, the competent authorities in each of these EU Member States must provide their approval for the conduct of the clinical trial. Furthermore, the sponsor may only start a clinical trial at a specific study site after the applicable ethics committee has issued a favorable opinion.

Parties conducting certain clinical trials must, as in the United States, post clinical trial information in the European Union at the EudraCT website: https://eudract.ema.europa.eu.

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PRIME Designation in the EU

In March 2016, the EMA launched an initiative to facilitate development of product candidates in indications, often rare, for which few or no therapies currently exist. The PRIority MEdicines, or PRIME, scheme is intended to encourage drug development in areas of unmet medical need and provides accelerated assessment of products representing substantial innovation reviewed under the centralized procedure. Products from small- and medium-sized enterprises, or SMEs, may qualify for earlier entry into the PRIME scheme than larger companies. Many benefits accrue to sponsors of product candidates with PRIME designation, including but not limited to, early and proactive regulatory dialogue with the EMA, frequent discussions on clinical trial designs and other development program elements, and accelerated marketing authorization application assessment once a dossier has been submitted. Importantly, a dedicated Agency contact and rapporteur from the Committee for Human Medicinal Products (CHMP) or Committee for Advanced Therapies (CAT) are appointed early in PRIME scheme facilitating increased understanding of the product at EMA’s Committee level. A kick-off meeting initiates these relationships and includes a team of multidisciplinary experts at the EMA to provide guidance on the overall development and regulatory strategies.

Marketing Authorization

To obtain a marketing authorization for a product under European Union regulatory systems, a sponsor must submit an MAA either under a centralized procedure administered by the EMA or one of the procedures administered by competent authorities in European Union member states (decentralized procedure, national procedure or mutual recognition procedure). A marketing authorization may be granted only to a sponsor established in the European Union. In the case of pediatric patients, Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006 provides that prior to obtaining a marketing authorization in the European Union, sponsors have to demonstrate compliance with all measures included in an EMA-approved Paediatric Investigation Plan, or PIP, covering all subsets of the pediatric population, unless the EMA has granted (1) a product-specific waiver, (2) a class waiver or (3) a deferral for one or more of the measures included in the PIP.

The centralized procedure provides for the grant of a single marketing authorization by the European Commission that is valid for all European Union member states. Pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 726/2004, the centralized procedure is compulsory for specific products, including for medicines produced by certain biotechnological processes, products designated as orphan medicinal products, advanced therapy products and products with a new active substance indicated for the treatment of certain diseases, including products for the treatment of cancer. For products with a new active substance indicated for the treatment of other diseases and products that are highly innovative or for which a centralized process is in the interest of patients, the centralized procedure may be optional.

Under the centralized procedure, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use, or the CHMP, established at the EMA is responsible for conducting the initial assessment of a product. The CHMP is also responsible for several post-authorization and maintenance activities, such as the assessment of modifications or extensions to an existing marketing authorization. Under the centralized procedure in the European Union, the maximum timeframe for the evaluation of an MAA is 210 days, excluding clock stops, when additional information or written or oral explanation is to be provided by the sponsor in response to questions of the CHMP. Accelerated evaluation might be granted by the CHMP in exceptional cases, when a medicinal product is of major interest from the point of view of public health and in particular from the viewpoint of therapeutic innovation. If the CHMP accepts such request, the time limit of 210 days will be reduced to 150 days but it is possible that the CHMP can revert to the standard time limit for the centralized procedure if it considers that it is no longer appropriate to conduct an accelerated assessment.

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Regulatory Data Protection in the EU

In the EU, innovative medicinal products approved on the basis of a complete independent data package qualify for eight years of data exclusivity upon marketing authorization and an additional two years of market exclusivity pursuant to Directive 2001/83/EC. Regulation (EC) No 726/2004 repeats this entitlement for medicinal products authorized in accordance with the centralized authorization procedure. Data exclusivity prevents applicants for authorization of generics of these innovative products from referencing the innovator’s data to assess a generic (abridged) application for a period of eight years. During an additional two-year period of market exclusivity, a generic marketing authorization application can be submitted and authorized, and the innovator’s data may be referenced, but no generic medicinal product can be placed on the EU market until the expiration of the market exclusivity. The overall ten-year period will be extended to a maximum of 11 years if, during the first eight years of those ten years, the marketing authorization holder obtains an authorization for one or more new therapeutic indications which, during the scientific evaluation prior to their authorization, are held to bring a significant clinical benefit in comparison with existing therapies. Even if a compound is considered to be a new chemical entity so that the innovator gains the prescribed period of data exclusivity, another company nevertheless could also market another version of the product if such company obtained marketing authorization based on an MAA with a complete independent data package of pharmaceutical tests, preclinical tests and clinical trials.

Periods of Authorization and Renewals

A marketing authorization shall be valid for five years in principle and the marketing authorization may be renewed after five years on the basis of a re-evaluation of the risk-benefit balance by the EMA or by the competent authority of the authorizing member state. To this end, the marketing authorization holder must provide the EMA or the competent authority with a consolidated version of the file in respect of quality, safety and efficacy, including all variations introduced since the marketing authorization was granted, at least six months before the marketing authorization ceases to be valid. Once renewed, the marketing authorization shall be valid for an unlimited period, unless the European Commission or the competent authority decides, on justified grounds relating to pharmacovigilance, to proceed with one additional five-year renewal. Any authorization which is not followed by the actual placing of the drug on the European Union market (in case of centralized procedure) or on the market of the authorizing member state within three years after authorization ceases to be valid (the so-called sunset clause).

Orphan Drug Designation and Exclusivity

Regulation 141/2000 provides that a drug shall be designated as an orphan drug if its sponsor can establish that the product is intended for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of a life-threatening or chronically debilitating condition affecting not more than five in ten thousand persons in the European Community when the application is made, or that the product is intended for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of a life-threatening, seriously debilitating or serious and chronic condition in the European Community and that without incentives it is unlikely that the marketing of the drug in the European Community would generate sufficient return to justify the necessary investment. For either of these conditions, the sponsor must demonstrate that there exists no satisfactory method of diagnosis, prevention or treatment of the condition in question that has been authorized in the European Community or, if such method exists, the drug will be of significant benefit to those affected by that condition.

Regulation 847/2000 sets out criteria and procedures governing designation of orphan drugs in the European Union. Specifically, an application for designation as an orphan product can be made any time prior to the filing of an application for approval to market the product. Marketing authorization for an orphan drug leads to a ten-year period of market exclusivity. During this market exclusivity period, the EMA or the member state competent authorities, cannot accept another application for a marketing authorization, or grant a marketing authorization, for a similar medicinal product for the same indication. The period of market exclusivity is extended by two years for medicines that have also complied with an agreed PIP.

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This period may, however, be reduced to six years if, at the end of the fifth year, it is established that the product no longer meets the criteria for orphan drug designation, for example because the product is sufficiently profitable not to justify market exclusivity. Market exclusivity can be revoked only in very selected cases, such as consent from the marketing authorization holder, inability to supply sufficient quantities of the product, demonstration of “clinical superiority” by a similar medicinal product, or, after a review by the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products, requested by a member state in the fifth year of the marketing exclusivity period (if the designation criteria are believed to no longer apply). Medicinal products designated as orphan drugs pursuant to Regulation 141/2000 shall be eligible for incentives made available by the European Community and by the member states to support research into, and the development and availability of, orphan drugs.

Regulatory Requirements after a Marketing Authorization has been Obtained

In case an authorization for a medicinal product in the European Union is obtained, the holder of the marketing authorization is required to comply with a range of requirements applicable to the manufacturing, marketing, promotion and sale of medicinal products. These include:

Patent Term Extensions in the European Union and Other Jurisdictions

The European Union also provides for patent term extension through Supplementary Protection Certificates, or SPCs. The rules and requirements for obtaining an SPC are similar to those in the United States. An SPC may extend the term of a patent for up to five years after its originally scheduled expiration date and can provide up to a maximum of fifteen years of marketing exclusivity for a drug. These periods can be extended for six additional months if pediatric exclusivity is obtained, which is described in detail below. Although SPCs are available throughout the European Union, sponsors must apply on a country-by-country basis. Similar patent term extension rights exist in certain other foreign jurisdictions outside the European Union

Authorization to Market Companion Diagnostics in the European Union

In the European Union, medical devices such as companion diagnostics must comply with the General Safety and Performance Requirements, or SPRs, detailed in Annex I of the EU Medical Devices Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2017/745), or MDR which came into force on May 26, 2021 and replaced the previously applicable EU Medical Devices Directive (Council Directive 93/42/EEC). Compliance with SPRs and additional requirements applicable to companion medical devices is a prerequisite to be able to affix the CE Mark of Conformity to medical devices, without which they cannot be marketed or sold. To demonstrate compliance with the SPRs, a manufacturer must undergo a conformity assessment procedure, which varies according to the type of medical device and its classification. The MDR is meant to establish a uniform, transparent, predictable, and sustainable regulatory framework across the European Union for medical devices.

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Separately, the regulatory authorities in the European Union also adopted a new In Vitro Diagnostic Regulation, or IVDR, (EU) 2017/746, which became effective in May 2022. The new regulation replaced the In Vitro Diagnostics Directive (IVDD) 98/79/EC. Manufacturers wishing to apply to a notified body for a conformity assessment of their in vitro diagnostic medical device had until May 2022 to update their Technical Documentation to meet the requirements and comply with the new, more stringent Regulation. The regulation will, among other things: strengthen the rules on placing devices on the market and reinforce surveillance once they are available; establish explicit provisions on manufacturers’ responsibilities for the follow-up of the quality, performance, and safety of devices placed on the market; improve the traceability of medical devices throughout the supply chain to the end-user or patient through a unique identification number; set up a central database to provide patients, healthcare professionals and the public with comprehensive information on products available in the European Union; and strengthen rules for the assessment of certain high-risk devices, such as implants, which may have to undergo an additional check by experts before they are placed on the market.

Brexit and the Regulatory Framework in the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union took place on January 31, 2020. The European Union and the United Kingdom. reached an agreement on their new partnership in the Trade and Cooperation Agreement, or the Agreement, which was applied provisionally beginning on January 1, 2021 and which entered into force on May 1, 2021. The Agreement focuses primarily on free trade by ensuring no tariffs or quotas on trade in goods, including healthcare products such as medicinal products. Thereafter, the European Union and the United Kingdom will form two separate markets governed by two distinct regulatory and legal regimes. As such, the Agreement seeks to minimize barriers to trade in goods while accepting that border checks will become inevitable as a consequence that the United Kingdom is no longer part of the single market. As of January 1, 2021, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, or the MHRA, became responsible for supervising medicines and medical devices in Great Britain, comprising England, Scotland and Wales under domestic law whereas Northern Ireland continues to be subject to European Union rules under the Northern Ireland Protocol. The MHRA will rely on the Human Medicines Regulations 2012 (SI 2012/1916) (as amended), or the HMR, as the basis for regulating medicines. The HMR has incorporated into the domestic law the body of EU law instruments governing medicinal products that pre-existed prior to the U.K.’s withdrawal from the EU. The MHRA may rely on a decision taken by the European Commission on the approval of a new marketing authorization via the centralized procedure until December 31, 2023.

General Data Protection Regulation

Many countries outside of the United States maintain rigorous laws governing the privacy and security of personal information. The collection, use, disclosure, transfer, or other processing of personal data, including personal health data, regarding individuals who are located in the European Economic Area, or EEA, and the processing of personal data that takes place in the EEA, is subject to the General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR, which became effective on May 25, 2018. The GDPR is wide-ranging in scope and imposes numerous requirements on companies that process personal data, and it imposes heightened requirements on companies that process health and other sensitive data, such as requiring in many situations that a company obtain the consent of the individuals to whom the sensitive personal data relate before processing such data. Examples of obligations imposed by the GDPR on companies processing personal data that fall within the scope of the GDPR include providing information to individuals regarding data processing activities, implementing safeguards to protect the security and confidentiality of personal data, appointing a data protection officer, providing notification of data breaches and taking certain measures when engaging third-party processors.

The GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data to countries outside the EEA, including the United States, and permits data protection authorities to impose large penalties for violations of the GDPR, including potential fines of up to €20 million or 4% of annual global revenues, whichever is greater. The GDPR also confers a private right of action on data subjects and consumer associations to lodge complaints with supervisory authorities, seek judicial remedies, and obtain compensation for damages resulting from violations of the GDPR. Compliance with the GDPR is a rigorous and time-intensive process that may increase the cost of doing business or require companies to change their business practices to ensure full compliance. In July 2020, the Court of Justice of the European Union, or the CJEU, invalidated the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield framework, one of the mechanisms used to legitimize the transfer of personal data from the EEA to the United States. The CJEU decision also drew into

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question the long-term viability of an alternative means of data transfer, the standard contractual clauses, for transfers of personal data from the EEA to the United States. Following the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, the U.K. Data Protection Act 2018 applies to the processing of personal data that takes place in the United Kingdom and includes parallel obligations to those set forth by GDPR.

Additionally, in October 2022, President Biden signed an executive order to implement the EU-U.S. Data Privacy Framework, which would serve as a replacement to the EU-US Privacy Shield. The EC initiated the process to adopt an adequacy decision for the EU-US Data Privacy Framework in December 2022. It is unclear if and when the framework will be finalized and whether it will be challenged in court. The uncertainty around this issue may further impact our business operations in the EU.

Healthcare Law and Regulation

Healthcare providers and third-party payors play a primary role in the recommendation and prescription of drug products that are granted marketing approval. Arrangements with providers, consultants, third-party payors and customers are subject to broadly applicable fraud and abuse, anti-kickback, false claims laws, reporting of payments to physicians and teaching physicians and patient privacy laws and regulations and other healthcare laws and regulations that may constrain our business and/or financial arrangements. Restrictions under applicable federal and state healthcare laws and regulations, include the following:

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Some state laws require pharmaceutical companies to comply with the pharmaceutical industry’s voluntary compliance guidelines and the relevant compliance guidance promulgated by the federal government in addition to requiring drug manufacturers to report information related to payments to physicians and other healthcare providers or marketing expenditures and pricing information. State and foreign laws also govern the privacy and security of health information in some circumstances, many of which differ from each other in significant ways and often are not preempted by HIPAA, thus complicating compliance efforts.

Pharmaceutical Insurance Coverage

In the United States and markets in other countries, patients who are prescribed treatments for their conditions and providers performing the prescribed services generally rely on third-party payors to reimburse all or part of the associated health care costs. Significant uncertainty exists as to the coverage and reimbursement status of products approved by the FDA and other government authorities. Thus, even if a product candidate is approved, sales of the product will depend, in part, on the extent to which third-party payors, including government health programs in the United States such as Medicare and Medicaid, commercial health insurers and managed care organizations, provide coverage and establish adequate reimbursement levels for, the product. The process for determining whether a payor will provide coverage for a product may be separate from the process for setting the price or reimbursement rate that the payor will pay for the product once coverage is approved. Third-party payors are increasingly challenging the prices charged, examining the medical necessity and reviewing the cost effectiveness of medical products and services and imposing controls to manage costs. Third-party payors may limit coverage to specific products on an approved list, also known as a formulary, which might not include all of the approved products for a particular indication.

In order to secure coverage and reimbursement for any product that might be approved for sale, a company may need to conduct expensive pharmacoeconomic studies in order to demonstrate the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of the product, in addition to the costs required to obtain FDA or other comparable marketing approvals. Nonetheless, product candidates may not be considered medically necessary or cost effective. A decision by a third-party payor not to cover a product could reduce physician utilization once the product is approved and have a material adverse effect on sales, results of operations and financial condition. Additionally, a payor’s decision to provide coverage for a product does not imply that an adequate reimbursement rate will be approved. Further, one payor’s determination to provide coverage for a product does not assure that other payors will also provide coverage and reimbursement for the product, and the level of coverage and reimbursement can differ significantly from payor to payor.

The containment of health care costs also has become a priority of federal, state and foreign governments and the prices of products have been a focus in this effort. Governments have shown significant interest in implementing cost-containment programs, including price controls, restrictions on reimbursement and requirements for substitution of generic products. Adoption of price controls and cost-containment measures, and adoption of more restrictive policies in jurisdictions with existing controls and measures, could further limit a company’s revenue generated from the sale of any approved products. Coverage policies and third-party reimbursement rates may change at any time. Even if favorable coverage and reimbursement status is attained for one or more products for which a company or its collaborators receive marketing approval, less favorable coverage policies and reimbursement rates may be implemented in the future.

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In the European Union, pricing and reimbursement schemes vary widely from country to country. Some countries provide that products may be marketed only after a reimbursement price has been agreed. Some countries may require the completion of additional studies that compare the cost-effectiveness of a particular drug candidate to currently available therapies (so called health technology assessment, or HTA) in order to obtain reimbursement or pricing approval. For example, the European Union provides options for its member states to restrict the range of products for which their national health insurance systems provide reimbursement and to control the prices of medicinal products for human use. European Union member states may approve a specific price for a product or it may instead adopt a system of direct or indirect controls on the profitability of the company placing the product on the market. Other member states allow companies to fix their own prices for products, but monitor and control prescription volumes and issue guidance to physicians to limit prescriptions.

Healthcare Reform

There have been a number of federal and state proposals during the last few years regarding the pricing of pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical products, limiting coverage and reimbursement for drugs and biologics and other medical products, government control and other changes to the health care system in the United States. In March 2010, the ACA was enacted, which includes measures that have significantly changed health care financing by both governmental and private insurers. The provisions of the ACA of importance to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry are, among others, the following:

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Other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted in the United States since the ACA was enacted. In August 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011, among other things, created measures for spending reductions by Congress. A Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction, tasked with recommending a targeted deficit reduction of at least $1.2 trillion for the years 2013 through 2021, was unable to reach required goals, thereby triggering the legislation’s automatic reduction to several government programs. This includes aggregate reductions of Medicare payments to providers up to 2% per fiscal year, which went into effect in April 2013 and, due to subsequent legislative amendments, will remain in effect through 2031 pursuant to the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, or the CARES Act. These Medicare sequester reductions were suspended and reduced through the end of June 2022 , with the full 2% cut resuming thereafter. In January 2013, President Obama signed into law the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, which, among other things, further reduced Medicare payments to several providers, including hospitals, imaging centers and cancer treatment centers, and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years. These laws may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding and otherwise affect the prices we may obtain for ALRN-6924 for which we may obtain regulatory approval or the frequency with which such product candidate is prescribed or used. Indeed, under current legislation, the actual reductions in Medicare payments may vary up to 4%.

Since enactment of the ACA, there have been, and continue to be, numerous legal challenges and Congressional actions to repeal and replace provisions of the law. For example, with enactment of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which was signed by President Trump on December 22, 2017, Congress repealed the “individual mandate.” The repeal of this provision, which requires most Americans to carry a minimal level of health insurance, became effective in 2019. Additionally, the 2020 federal spending package permanently eliminated, effective January 1, 2020, the ACA-mandated “Cadillac” tax on high-cost employer-sponsored health coverage and medical device tax and, effective January 1, 2021, also eliminated the health insurer tax. Further, the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018, among other things, amended the ACA, effective January 1, 2019, to increase from 50 percent to 70 percent the point-of-sale discount that is owed by pharmaceutical manufacturers who participate in Medicare Part D and to close the coverage gap in most Medicare drug plans, commonly referred to as the “donut hole.” The Congress may consider other legislation to replace elements of the ACA.

The Trump administration took executive actions to undermine or delay implementation of the ACA, including directing federal agencies with authorities and responsibilities under the ACA to waive, defer, grant exemptions from, or delay the implementation of any provision of the ACA that would impose a fiscal or regulatory burden on states, individuals, healthcare providers, health insurers, or manufacturers of pharmaceuticals or medical devices. On January 28, 2021, however, President Biden rescinded those orders and issued a new Executive Order which directs federal agencies to reconsider rules and other policies that limit Americans’ access to health care, and consider actions that will protect and strengthen that access. There has also been litigation with respect to the ACA. For instance, in June 2021 the Supreme Court rejected a challenge to the ACA. Litigation and legislation over the ACA are likely to continue, with unpredictable and uncertain results.

Pharmaceutical Prices

The prices of prescription pharmaceuticals have also been the subject of considerable discussion in the United States. There have been several recent U.S. congressional inquiries, as well as proposed and enacted state and federal legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to pharmaceutical pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reduce the costs of pharmaceuticals under Medicare and Medicaid.

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On August 16, 2022, the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, or IRA, was signed into law by President Biden. The new legislation has implications for Medicare Part D, which is a program available to individuals who are entitled to Medicare Part A or enrolled in Medicare Part B to give them the option of paying a monthly premium for outpatient prescription drug coverage. Among other things, the IRA requires manufacturers of certain drugs to engage in price negotiations with Medicare (beginning in 2026), with prices that can be negotiated subject to a cap; imposes rebates under Medicare Part B and Medicare Part D to penalize price increases that outpace inflation (first due in 2023); and replaces the Part D coverage gap discount program with a new discounting program (beginning in 2025). The IRA permits the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to implement many of these provisions through guidance, as opposed to regulation, for the initial years.

Specifically, with respect to price negotiations, Congress authorized Medicare to negotiate lower prices for certain costly single-source drug and biologic products that do not have competing generics or biosimilars and are reimbursed under Medicare Part B and Part D. CMS may negotiate prices for ten high-cost drugs paid for by Medicare Part D starting in 2026, followed by 15 Part D drugs in 2027, 15 Part B or Part D drugs in 2028, and 20 Part B or Part D drugs in 2029 and beyond. This provision applies to drug products that have been approved for at least 9 years and biologics that have been licensed for 13 years, but it does not apply to drugs and biologics that have been approved for a single rare disease or condition. Further, the legislation subjects drug manufacturers to civil monetary penalties and a potential excise tax for failing to comply with the legislation by offering a price that is not equal to or less than the negotiated “maximum fair price” under the law or for taking price increases that exceed inflation. The legislation also requires manufacturers to pay rebates for drugs in Medicare Part D whose price increases exceed inflation. The new law also caps Medicare out-of-pocket drug costs at an estimated $4,000 a year in 2024 and, thereafter beginning in 2025, at 2,000 a year.

At the state level, individual states are increasingly aggressive in passing legislation and implementing regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. A number of states, for example, require drug manufacturers and other entities in the drug supply chain, including health carriers, pharmacy benefit managers, wholesale distributors, to disclose information about pricing of pharmaceuticals. In addition, regional healthcare organizations and individual hospitals are increasingly using bidding procedures to determine what pharmaceutical products and which suppliers will be included in their prescription pharmaceutical and other healthcare programs. These measures could reduce the ultimate demand for our products, once approved, or put pressure on our product pricing.

We expect that additional state and federal healthcare reform measures will be adopted in the future, any of which could limit the amounts that federal and state governments will pay for healthcare products and services, which could result in reduced demand for our product candidates or additional pricing pressures.

Employees and Human Capital Resources

As of March 16, 2023 we had six full-time employees, including a total of three employees with M.D. or Ph.D. degrees, all engaged in general and administrative activities. None of our employees are represented by labor unions or covered by a collective bargaining agreement. We consider our relationship with our employees to be good.

In connection with our decision to terminate our Phase 1b breast cancer trial and further development of ALRN-6924, and our related decision to explore a range of strategic alternatives, we have determined to reduce our remaining workforce from nine to three full-time employees in the first and second quarters of 2023. We plan to retain the remaining employees to assist in executing the strategic alternatives review process.

We estimate that the severance and termination-related costs for the six former employees will be approximately $1.0 to $1.1 million and expect to record these costs in the first quarter of 2023. We expect that payment of these costs will be made through the second quarter of 2023. Our estimate of costs and the expected timing for recording and paying those costs are subject to a number of assumptions and actual results may differ. We may also incur other costs not currently contemplated due to events that may occur as a result of, or associated with, the workforce reduction.

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We are dedicated to fostering a workplace environment that keeps our employees inspired, including providing a comprehensive benefits program that supports the health care, family, and financial needs of our employees. All of our full-time employees are eligible for cash bonuses and equity awards in addition to other benefits including comprehensive health insurance, life and disability insurance, and 401(k) matching.

Corporate Information

We were incorporated under the laws of the State of Delaware on August 6, 2001 under the name Renegade Therapeutics, Inc. We changed our name to Aileron Therapeutics, Inc. on February 5, 2007. Our principal executive office is located at 738 Main Street #398, Waltham, MA 02451, and our telephone number is (617) 995-0900.

Information Available on the Internet

Our internet website address is http://www.aileronrx.com. The information contained on, or that can be accessed through, our website is not a part of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. We have included our website address in this Annual Report on Form 10-K solely as an inactive textual reference. We make available free of charge through our website our Annual Report on Form 10-K, Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Form 8-K and amendment to those reports filed or furnished pursuant to Sections 13(a) and 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act. We make these reports available through the “SEC Filings” section of our website as soon as reasonably practicable after we electronically file such reports with, or furnish such reports to, the Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC. We also make available, free of charge on our website, the reports filed with the SEC by our executive officers, directors and 10% stockholders pursuant to Section 16 under the Exchange Act as soon as reasonably practicable after copies of those filings are provided to us by those persons. You can review our electronically filed reports and other information that we file with the SEC on the SEC’s website at http://www.sec.gov.

Item 1A. Risk Factors.

Careful consideration should be given to the following risk factors, in addition to the other information set forth in this Annual Report on Form 10-K and in other documents that we file with the SEC, in evaluating our company and our business. Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. If any of the following risks actually occur, our business, financial condition, results of operations and future growth prospects could be materially and adversely affected.

Risks Related to Strategic Alternative Process and Potential Strategic Transaction

We may not be successful in identifying and implementing any strategic transaction and any strategic transaction that we may consummate may not be successful.

In February 2023, we made the decision to discontinue further development of ALRN-6924. In connection with this decision, we announced that we would be reducing our remaining workforce from nine to three full-time employees, designed to substantially reduce our operating expenses while we undertake a comprehensive assessment of strategic options to maximize stockholder value. These strategic options may include a merger, reverse merger, sale, wind-down, liquidation and dissolution or other strategic transaction. However, there can be no assurance that we will be able to successfully consummate any particular strategic transaction. The process of continuing to evaluate these strategic options may be very costly, time-consuming and complex and we may incur significant costs related to this continued evaluation. We may also incur additional unanticipated expenses in connection with this process. A considerable portion of these costs will be incurred regardless of whether any such course of action is implemented or transaction is completed. Any such expenses will decrease the remaining cash available for use in our business and may eliminate, diminish or delay any future distributions to our stockholders.

In addition, there can be no assurances that any particular course of action, business arrangement or transaction, or series of transactions, will be pursued, successfully consummated, lead to increased stockholder value, or achieve the anticipated results. Any failure of such potential transaction to achieve the anticipated results could significantly impair our ability to enter into any future strategic transactions and may significantly reduce or delay any future distributions to our stockholders.

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We may not realize any additional value in a strategic transaction.

The market capitalization of our company is below the value of our current cash, cash equivalents and investments. Potential counterparties in a strategic transaction involving our company may place minimal or no value on our assets, including ALRN-6924. Further, the development and any potential commercialization of ALRN-6924 would require substantial additional cash to fund the costs associated with conducting the necessary clinical testing and obtaining regulatory approval. Consequently, any potential counterparty in a strategic transaction involving our company may choose not to spend the additional resources necessary to continue developing ALRN-6924 and may attribute little or no value, in such a transaction, to it or our platform technology.

If we are successful in completing a strategic transaction, we may be exposed to other operational and financial risks.

Although there can be no assurances that a strategic transaction will result from the process we have undertaken to identify and evaluate strategic alternatives, the negotiation and consummation of any such transaction will require significant time on the part of our management.

The negotiation and consummation of any such transaction may also require more time or greater cash resources than we anticipate and expose us to other operational and financial risks, including:

Any of the foregoing risks could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and prospects.

Our decision to discontinue further development of ALRN-6924 and the related reduction in our workforce may not result in the anticipated savings and could disrupt our business.

In February 2023, we made the decision to discontinue further development of ALRN-6924 and we decided to reduce our workforce to substantially reduce our operating expenses while we undertake a comprehensive assessment of strategic options to maximize stockholder value. We may not realize, in full or in part, the anticipated benefits and savings in operating expenses from these decisions due to unforeseen difficulties, delays or unexpected costs. This may include higher than expected costs associated with winding down our Phase 1b breast cancer trial. If we are unable to realize the expected cost savings, our financial condition would be adversely affected and it may be more difficult to complete a potential strategic transaction. Furthermore, the reduction in our workforce may result in weaknesses in our infrastructure and operations and may increase the risk that we become unable to comply with legal and regulatory requirements.

Our board of directors may decide to pursue a dissolution and liquidation or seek protection under the bankruptcy laws. In such an event, the amount of cash available for distribution to our stockholders will depend

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heavily on the timing of such liquidation as well as the amount of cash that will need to be reserved for commitments and contingent liabilities.

There can be no assurance that a strategic transaction will be completed and our board of directors may decide to pursue a dissolution and liquidation. In such an event, the amount of cash available for distribution to our stockholders will depend heavily on the timing of such decision and, as with the passage of time the amount of cash available for distribution will be reduced as we continue to fund our operations. In addition, if our board of directors were to approve and recommend, and our stockholders were to approve, a dissolution and liquidation, we would be required under Delaware corporate law to pay our outstanding obligations, as well as to make reasonable provision for contingent and unknown obligations, prior to making any distributions in liquidation to our stockholders. As a result of this requirement, a portion of our assets may need to be reserved pending the resolution of such obligations and the timing of any such resolution is uncertain. In addition, we may be subject to litigation or other claims related to a dissolution and liquidation. If a dissolution and liquidation were pursued, our board of directors, in consultation with our advisors, would need to evaluate these matters and make a determination about a reasonable amount to reserve. It is unclear whether and to what extent any resources would be available for distribution to our stockholders and when such distributions could be made, and holders of our common stock could lose all or a significant portion of their investment in the event of a liquidation, dissolution or winding up.

We also may consider seeking protection under the bankruptcy laws in order to continue to pursue potential transactions and conduct a wind-down of our company. If we decide to seek protection under the bankruptcy laws, we would expect that we would file for bankruptcy at a time that is significantly earlier than when we would otherwise exhaust our cash resources. If we decide to seek protection under the bankruptcy laws, it is unclear to what extent we will be able to pay our obligations, and, accordingly, it is further unclear whether, to what extent and when any resources would be available for distributions to stockholders and holders of our common stock could lose all or a significant portion of their investment.

Our ability to consummate a strategic transaction depends on our ability to retain our employees required to consummate such transaction.

Our ability to consummate a strategic transaction depends upon our ability to retain our employees required to consummate such a transaction, and the loss of such employees’ services may adversely impact the ability to consummate such transaction. In February 2023, we announced a reduction in our workforce intended to substantially reduce our operating expenses while we undertake a comprehensive assessment of strategic options to maximize stockholder value. Our cash conservation activities may yield unintended consequences, such as attrition beyond our planned reduction in workforce and reduced employee morale, which may cause remaining employees to seek alternative employment. Our ability to successfully complete a strategic transaction depends in large part on our ability to retain our remaining personnel. If we are unable to successfully retain our remaining personnel, we are at risk of a disruption to our exploration and consummation of strategic options as well as business operations.

We may become involved in securities class action litigation that could divert management’s attention and harm the company’s business, and insurance coverage may not be sufficient to cover all costs and damages.

In the past, securities class action litigation has often followed certain significant business transactions, such as the sale of a company or announcement of any other strategic transaction, or the announcement of negative events, such as negative results from clinical trials. These events may also result in or be concurrent with investigations by the SEC. We may be exposed to such litigation or investigation even if no wrongdoing occurred. Litigation and investigations are usually expensive and divert management’s attention and resources, which could adversely affect our business and cash resources and our ability to consummate a potential strategic transaction or the ultimate value our stockholders receive in any such transaction.

We have identified conditions and events that raise substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern.

Due to the inherent uncertainty in the timing and cost of potential strategic alternatives, including their impact on our cash consumption, we believe there is substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. See Note 1 to our financial statements appearing elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for additional information on our assessment. If we are unable to obtain additional capital and continue as a going concern, we might have to liquidate our assets and the values we receive for our assets in liquidation or dissolution could be significantly lower than the values reflected in our financial statements.

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Our lack of cash resources and our conclusion that we may be unable to continue as a going concern may materially adversely affect our share price and our ability to raise new capital or to enter into critical contractual relations with third parties.

Risks Related to Our Financial Position

If we continued to pursue product development, we would have needed substantial additional funding to continue such activities.

Developing pharmaceutical products, including conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials, is a time-consuming, expensive and uncertain process that takes years to complete. Although we are not currently developing any product candidates, if we continued pursuing development of ALRN-6924, we would have been required to expend significant funds in order to advance the development of, conduct clinical trials of, and seek marketing approval for ALRN-6924. If we were able to obtain marketing approval for ALRN-6924, we would have incurred significant commercialization expenses related to drug sales, marketing, manufacturing and distribution to the extent that such sales, marketing, manufacturing and distribution were not then the responsibility of any collaborator.

Our future capital requirements will depend on many factors, including:

If we had continued to pursue development of ALRN-6924 our capital requirements would have depended on many factors, including:

Subject to the outcome of our exploration of strategic alternatives, we believe that, based on our current operating plan, our cash, cash equivalents and investments as of December 31, 2022 will enable us to fund our operating expenses for at least twelve months following the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. However, due to the inherent uncertainty in the timing and cost of these potential strategic alternatives, including their impact on our cash consumption, we have concluded that as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K there is substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern. Our funding estimates are based on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could use our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect. Changing circumstances, some of which may be beyond our control, could cause us to consume capital significantly faster than we currently anticipate. While we have implemented certain cash preservation measures, we cannot be certain that such measures will result in the savings anticipated.

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We have incurred significant losses since inception. We expect to incur losses for the foreseeable future and do not expect to achieve or maintain profitability.

Since our inception, we have incurred significant losses on an aggregate basis. Our net loss was $27.3 million and $26.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively. We have not generated any revenue to date from sales of any drugs and have financed our operations principally through sales of our common stock, through private placements of our preferred stock prior to our initial public offering, and, to a lesser extent, through a collaboration agreement. We have devoted substantially all of our efforts to research and development. In February 2023, we discontinued development of ALRN-6924 in order to substantially reduce our operating expenses while we undertake a comprehensive assessment of our strategic options. Notwithstanding these events, we expect to continue to incur operating losses for the foreseeable future. In addition, our losses from operations may fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter.

While we recently made the decision to discontinue development of ALRN-6924 and are not currently developing product candidates, to become and remain profitable, we would have needed to develop, obtain approval for and eventually commercialize a product or products with significant market potential. This would have required us to be successful in a range of challenging activities, including completing preclinical studies and clinical trials of ALRN-6924, obtaining marketing approval for ALRN-6924, manufacturing, marketing and selling ALRN-6924 following any marketing approval we may have obtained and establishing and managing any collaborations for the development, marketing and/or commercialization of ALRN-6924. We may never have succeeded in these activities and, even if we did, may never have generated revenues that would have been significant or large enough to achieve profitability.

We hold a portion of our cash and cash equivalents that we use to meet our working capital and operating expense needs in deposit accounts that could be adversely affected if the financial institutions holding such funds fail.

We hold a portion of cash and cash equivalents that we use to meet our working capital and operating expense needs in deposit accounts. The balance held in these accounts may exceed the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, or FDIC, standard deposit insurance limit of $250,000. If a financial institution in which we hold such funds fails or is subject to significant adverse conditions in the financial or credit markets, we could be subject to a risk of loss of all or a portion of such uninsured funds or be subject to a delay in accessing all or a portion of such uninsured funds. Any such loss or lack of access to these funds could adversely impact our short-term liquidity and ability to meet our operating expense obligations.

For example, on March 10, 2023, Silicon Valley Bank, or SVB, and Signature Bank, were closed by state regulators and the FDIC was appointed receiver for each bank. The FDIC created successor bridge banks and all deposits of SVB and Signature Bank were transferred to the bridge banks under a systemic risk exception approved by the United States Department of the Treasury, the Federal Reserve and the FDIC. If financial institutions in which we hold funds for working capital and operating expenses were to fail, we cannot provide any assurances that such governmental agencies would take action to protect our uninsured deposits in a similar manner.

We also maintain investment accounts in which we hold our investments and, if access to the funds we use for working capital and operating expenses is impaired, we may not be able to open new operating accounts or to sell investments or transfer funds from our investment accounts to new operating accounts on a timely basis sufficient to meet our operating expense obligations.

Risks Related to the Discovery, Development and Commercialization of Product Candidates

The approach we took to discover and develop novel drugs is unproven and may never lead to marketable products.

We concentrated our efforts and therapeutic product research on stabilized cell-permeating alpha-helical peptide technology. Neither we nor any other company has received marketing approval to market therapeutics utilizing stabilized cell-permeating peptides. The scientific discoveries that formed the basis for our efforts to discover and develop new drugs are relatively new. The scientific evidence to support the feasibility of developing drugs based on these discoveries is both preliminary and limited. Very few drug candidates based on these discoveries have ever been tested in animals, and development of an earlier stabilized cell-permeating peptide

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product candidate by us was suspended following a clinical trial due to the anticipated costs of required reformulation. Peptides do not naturally possess the inherent molecular properties typically required of drugs, such as the ability to be stable in the body long enough to reach the tissues in which their effects are required, nor the ability to enter cells within these tissues in order to exert their effects. We currently have only limited data to suggest that we can introduce these properties into peptides. In addition, stabilized cell-permeating peptide product candidates may not demonstrate in patients the chemical and pharmacological properties ascribed to them in laboratory studies, and they may interact with human biological systems in unforeseen, ineffective or harmful ways.

Moreover, we believe ALRN-6924 reactivates p53 by disrupting the interactions between p53 and its endogenous inhibitors, MDM2 and MDMX, thereby freeing p53 to transit to its DNA target in the nucleus and initiate cell cycle arrest in healthy cells and/or apoptosis in cancerous cells. We believe that ALRN-6924 was the first and only product candidate in clinical development that could bind to and disrupt the interaction of MDM2 and MDMX with p53 with equivalent effectiveness, or equipotently. Although we have evaluated ALRN-6924 in preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials, and are aware of published literature supporting the role of MDM2 and MDMX in reactivating non-mutated or wild type, or WT, p53 as well as clinical results for small molecule inhibitors that act to disrupt the interaction of p53 and MDM2, we believe that we were the first to clinically test a molecule that binds directly to both MDM2 and MDMX. As such, the effect of binding to and simultaneously disrupting the interactions of MDM2 and MDMX with WT p53 in cancer patients has not been established in clinical trials. In addition, the role of factors other than MDM2 and MDMX in circumventing the p53 mechanism is still the subject of continued research.

The use of a dual inhibitor of MDM2 and MDMX to reduce chemotherapy-related toxicities in the bone marrow and healthy normal cells outside of the bone marrow is a novel approach and we believe that we were the only company developing in clinical trials a MDM2 and MDMX inhibitor for this purpose. The scientific evidence to support the feasibility of developing this product candidate for this purpose is limited. Even though ALRN-6924 has demonstrated positive results in some preclinical studies and clinical trials, if we had continued product development of ALRN-6924, we may not have succeeded in demonstrating safety and efficacy of ALRN-6924 as a chemoprotective agent in additional or later-stage clinical trials.

As a result, we do not know whether the mechanism of action of ALRN-6924 would have the expected effect on patients receiving chemotherapy in any cancer indications and whether ALRN-6924 could or would demonstrate the safety and efficacy needed to advance in clinical development and obtain marketing approval.

We were dependent on the success of ALRN-6924 and there was no guarantee that our clinical trials of ALRN-6924 would have been successful.

We invested a substantial portion of our efforts and financial resources in the research and development of ALRN-6924 as a chemoprotective agent, and our business depended entirely on the successful development and commercialization of ALRN-6924.

If we had decided to continue the development of ALRN-6924, instead of ceasing clinical development of ALRN-6924, we would have been required to conduct additional clinical development, preclinical and manufacturing activities, obtained marketing approval in multiple jurisdictions and established commercial capabilities before we could have generated any revenues from product sales. We were not permitted to market or promote ALRN-6924 before we receive marketing approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or the FDA, and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, and we may never have received such marketing approvals.

The success of ALRN-6924 would have been dependent on several factors, including the following:

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We were pursuing the development of ALRN-6924 in combination with other approved chemotherapeutics. If the FDA revoked approval of any such therapeutic, or if safety, efficacy, manufacturing or supply issues arose with any therapeutic that we used in combination with ALRN-6924, we would have been unable to further develop and/or market ALRN-6924, or we may have experienced significant regulatory delays.

We were pursuing the development of ALRN-6924 in combination with approved chemotherapeutics. We did not develop or obtain regulatory approval for, and we do not manufacture or sell, any of these approved chemotherapeutics. If the FDA revoked its approval of any of these therapeutics, we would not have been able to continue clinical development of or market ALRN-6924 in combination with such revoked therapeutic. If safety or efficacy issues arose with these or any other therapeutics that we sought to combine with ALRN-6924, we would have experienced significant regulatory delays, and the FDA may have required us to redesign or terminate the applicable clinical trials. Moreover, if these therapeutics were to receive regulatory approval in combination with a different therapeutic in any indication for which we pursued approval, such approval could have impacted the feasibility and design of any subsequent clinical trials that we may have sought to conduct evaluating ALRN-6924 in combination with such therapeutic. If manufacturing, cost or other issues resulted in a supply shortage of these therapeutics or any other combination therapeutics, we may not have been able to complete clinical development of ALRN-6924.

In addition, we may have needed, for supply, data referencing or other purposes, to collaborate or otherwise engage with the companies who market these approved chemotherapeutics. If we were unable to do so on a timely basis, on acceptable terms or at all, we may have had to curtail the development of a product candidate or indication, reduce or delay its development, delay its potential commercialization or reduce the scope of any sales or marketing activities.

Even if ALRN-6924 received regulatory approval and was commercialized for use in combination with an approved chemotherapeutic, we would have continued to be subject to the risk that the FDA could revoke its approval of such therapeutic, that safety, efficacy, manufacturing, cost or supply issues could arise with one of these therapeutic agents, or that the current standard of care may be replaced. This could have resulted in ALRN-6924, if approved, being removed from the market or being less successful commercially.

The outcome of preclinical testing and early clinical trials may not be predictive of the success of later clinical trials, interim results of a clinical trial do not necessarily predict final results and the results of clinical trials may not satisfy the requirements of the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities.

Clinical trials may produce negative or inconclusive results, such as the initial results of our most recent Phase 1b trial of ALRN-6924. Success in preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials does not mean that future larger registration clinical trials will be successful because product candidates in later-stage clinical trials may fail to demonstrate sufficient safety and efficacy to the satisfaction of the FDA and non-U.S. regulatory authorities despite having progressed through preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials. Product candidates that have shown promising results in preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials may still suffer significant setbacks in subsequent registration clinical trials. Additionally, the outcome of preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials,

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such as the results of our Phase 1b trial of ALRN-6924 in patients with small cell lung cancer, may not be predictive of the success of later-stage clinical trials in the same or different indications, including in patients with non-small cell lung cancer and breast cancer.

Interim or preliminary data from clinical trials may not be indicative of the final results of the trial and there is a risk that one or more of the clinical outcomes may materially change as patient enrollment continues and more patient data become available. Interim or preliminary data also remain subject to audit and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the interim or preliminary data. As a result, interim or preliminary data should be viewed with caution until the final data are available.

In addition, the design of a clinical trial can determine whether its results will support approval of a drug and flaws in the design of a clinical trial may not become apparent until the clinical trial is well advanced. A number of companies in the pharmaceutical industry, including those with greater resources and experience than us, have suffered significant setbacks in advanced clinical trials, even after obtaining promising results in preclinical studies and earlier clinical trials.

In some instances, there can be significant variability in safety and efficacy results between different clinical trials of the same product candidate due to numerous factors, including changes in trial protocols, differences in size and type of the patient populations, differences in and adherence to the dosing regimen and other trial protocols and the rate of dropout among clinical trial participants.

In the event that an adverse safety issue, clinical hold or other adverse finding occurred in one or more of our clinical trials of ALRN-6924, such event could have adversely affected our clinical trials of ALRN-6924. Moreover, there is a relatively limited safety data set for product candidates utilizing stabilized cell-permeating peptides or that are designed to reactivate p53. An adverse safety issue or other adverse finding in a clinical trial conducted by a third party with a product candidate utilizing stabilized cell-permeating peptides or that is designed to reactivate p53, such as the small molecules in development that target the p53-MDM2 interaction, could have adversely affected our clinical trials of ALRN-6924.

Further, ALRN-6924 may not have been approved even if it achieved its primary endpoints in Phase 3 clinical trials or registration trials. The FDA or non-U.S. regulatory authorities may have disagreed with our trial design, including the lack of a concurrent control arm or the use of historical controls, and our interpretation of data from preclinical studies and clinical trials.

In addition, any of these regulatory authorities may have also approved ALRN-6924 for fewer or more limited indications than we requested or may have granted approval contingent on the performance of costly post-marketing clinical trials. In addition, the FDA or other non-U.S. regulatory authorities may not have approved the labeling claims that we believed would be necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of ALRN-6924.

Before obtaining marketing approvals for the commercial sale of any product candidate for a target indication, we would have been required to demonstrate with substantial evidence gathered in preclinical studies and well-controlled clinical trials, and, with respect to approval in the United States, to the satisfaction of the FDA, that the product candidate is safe and effective for use for that target indication. There is no assurance that the FDA or non-U.S. regulatory authorities would consider any clinical trials to be sufficient to serve as the basis for approval of ALRN-6924 for any indication. The FDA and non-U.S. regulatory authorities retain broad discretion in evaluating the results of clinical trials and in determining whether the results demonstrate that a product candidate is safe and effective.

Clinical drug development is a lengthy and expensive process, with an uncertain outcome.

Before obtaining marketing approval from regulatory authorities for the sale of ALRN-6924, we would have needed to complete preclinical development and then conduct extensive clinical trials to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of ALRN-6924. Clinical testing is expensive, difficult to design and implement, can take many years to complete and is uncertain as to outcome. A failure of one or more clinical trials can occur at any stage of testing. For example, in February 2023, we discontinued further development of ALRN-6924 based on initial results from our Phase 1b breast cancer trial. Moreover, preclinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses, and many companies that have believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical studies and clinical trials have nonetheless failed to obtain marketing approval of their drugs.

Clinical trials can be delayed for a variety of reasons, including delays related to:

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Clinical trials are subject to numerous unforeseen events that could delay or prevent the ability to receive marketing approval or commercialize products, including:

We conducted clinical trials of ALRN-6924 at sites outside the United States. The FDA may not accept data from clinical trials conducted in such locations.

We conducted clinical trials of ALRN-6924 at clinical trial sites that are located outside the United States. The FDA’s acceptance of data from clinical trials outside of the United States is subject to certain conditions. For example, the clinical trial must be well designed and conducted and performed by qualified investigators in accordance with good clinical practice. The FDA must be able to validate the data from the trial through an onsite inspection if necessary. The trial population must also have a similar profile to the U.S. population, and the data must be applicable to the U.S. population and U.S. medical practice in ways that the FDA deems clinically meaningful, except to the extent the disease being studied does not typically occur in the United States. In addition, while these clinical trials are subject to the applicable local laws, FDA acceptance of the data will be dependent upon its determination that the trials also complied with all applicable U.S. laws and regulations. There can be no assurance that the FDA will accept data from trials conducted outside of the United States. If the FDA did not accept

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the data from any trial that we conducted outside the United States, there could be a need for additional clinical trials, which would be costly and time-consuming.

Other risks inherent in conducting international clinical trials or using international trial sites include:

Delays or difficulties in the enrollment of patients in clinical trials, could delay or prevent receipt of necessary marketing approvals

The ability to initiate or continue clinical trials dependent upon the ability to locate and enroll a sufficient number of eligible patients to participate in these trials as required by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. Patient enrollment is a significant factor in the timing of clinical trials. In particular, because our chemoprotection clinical trials were targeted at a subset of patients in indications with p53-mutated cancers and our anti-cancer clinical trials were targeted at a subset of patients in indications with wild-type 53, our ability to enroll eligible patients was limited.

In addition, physicians were often not willing to advise patients to enroll in our clinical trials of ALRN-6924 in the absence of placebo-controlled data showing that treating patients with ALRN-6924 in combination with chemotherapy does not adversely affect the effectiveness of the chemotherapy. As a result of the unwillingness of physicians to enroll patients in our trials in these circumstances, we had opened fewer clinical trial sites in the United States than initially planned.

Patient enrollment may be affected if competitors have ongoing clinical trials for product candidates that are under development for the same indications, and patients who would have otherwise been eligible for clinical trials instead enrolled in clinical trials of competitors’ product candidates. Patient enrollment may also be affected by other factors, including:

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If serious adverse or unacceptable side effects were identified during the development of ALRN-6924 or we observed limited efficacy of ALRN-6924, we may have needed to abandon or limit the development of ALRN-6924 for those reasons.

Adverse events or undesirable side effects caused by, or other unexpected properties of, ALRN-6924 could have caused us, an institutional review board, or IRB, or regulatory authorities to interrupt, delay or halt clinical trials and could have resulted in the delay or denial of marketing approval by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities or a more restrictive label, if approved.

In general, our clinical trials of ALRN-6924 included cancer patients who were very sick and whose health was deteriorating, and we expect that additional clinical trials of ALRN-6924, if conducted, would have included similar patients with deteriorating health. It is possible that some of these patients might have died prior to their completion of the clinical trial. For example, in our Phase 1 trial of single agent ALRN-6924 for the treatment of AML and MDS a patient that was receiving a 3.8 mg/kg dose of ALRN-6924 under our three times per week dosing regimen died of tumor lysis syndrome related to treatment with ALRN-6924. Such deaths may be caused by the cancers from which such patients are suffering, or other causes, unrelated to ALRN-6924. Even if the deaths were not related to ALRN-6924, the deaths could affect perceptions regarding the safety of ALRN-6924.

If ALRN-6924 or any product candidate is associated with adverse events or undesirable side effects or has properties that are unexpected, such as the aforementioned death we observed in our Phase 1 trial of single agent ALRN-6924 for the treatment of AML and MDS, trials could be suspended or terminated and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities could order further development to cease or deny approval for any or all targeted indications. In addition, development of ALRN-6924 or such product candidate could be limited to certain uses or subpopulations in which the undesirable side effects or other characteristics are less prevalent, less severe or more acceptable from a risk-benefit perspective. Drug-related side effects could affect patient recruitment or the ability of enrolled patients to complete the trial or result in potential product liability claims.
 

The FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may, under certain circumstances, require that a companion diagnostic be approved for use with ALRN-6924. If approval of a companion diagnostic were required, and a diagnostic could not be successfully developed and approval could not be obtained or there were significant delays in doing so, marketing approval for ALRN-6924 may not be obtained in a timely manner, or at all.

We expect that the FDA and comparable foreign regulator authorities would, under certain circumstances, require a companion in vitro diagnostic to identify cancer patients with mutated p53 or wild-type p53 approved for use with ALRN-6924. We relied upon commercially available third-party assays and employed a central laboratory to test both archived tumor tissue samples and fresh biopsy samples from patients taken prior to enrollment in clinical trials of ALRN-6924 to identify p53 status.

The process of obtaining or creating such diagnostic is time consuming and costly. Companion diagnostics, which provide information that is essential for the safe and effective use of a corresponding therapeutic product, are subject to regulation by the FDA, EMA and other comparable foreign regulatory authorities as medical devices and require separate regulatory approval from therapeutic approval prior to commercialization. The FDA previously has required in vitro companion diagnostics intended to select the patients who will respond to a product candidate to obtain pre-market approval, or PMA, simultaneously with approval of the therapeutic candidate. The PMA process, including the gathering of preclinical studies and clinical trial data and the submission and review by the FDA, can take several years or longer. It involves a rigorous pre-market review during which the applicant must prepare and provide the FDA with reasonable assurance of the device’s safety and effectiveness and information about the device and its components regarding, among other things, device design, manufacturing, and labeling. After a device is placed on the market, it remains subject to significant regulatory requirements, including requirements governing development, testing, manufacturing, distribution, marketing, promotion, labeling, import, export, record-keeping, and adverse event reporting.

Given our limited experience in developing and commercializing diagnostics, we did not engage in efforts to develop companion diagnostics internally and thus would have been dependent on the sustained cooperation and effort of third-party collaborators in developing and obtaining approval for these companion diagnostics. We and any future collaborator could encounter difficulties in developing and obtaining approval for companion diagnostics, including issues relating to selectivity/specificity, analytical validation, reproducibility, or clinical validation. In

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addition, we or third parties may have encountered production difficulties that could constrain the supply of the companion diagnostics, and both they and we have had difficulties gaining acceptance of the use of the companion diagnostics by physicians.

We believe that adoption of screening and treatment into clinical practice guidelines is important for payer access, reimbursement, utilization in medical practice and commercial success, but both our collaborators and we may have had difficulty gaining acceptance of the companion diagnostic into clinical practice guidelines. If such companion diagnostics failed to gain market acceptance, it would have had an adverse effect on our ability to derive revenues from sales, if any, of any of our product candidates that were approved for commercial sale. In addition, any third party with whom we contracted may have decided not to commercialize or to discontinue selling or manufacturing the companion diagnostic that we anticipated using in connection with development and commercialization of ALRN-6924, or our relationship with such third party may otherwise have terminated. We may not have been able to enter into arrangements with another provider to obtain supplies of an alternative diagnostic test for use in connection with the development and commercialization of ALRN-6924 or do so on commercially reasonable terms, which could have adversely affected and/or delayed the development or commercialization of ALRN-6924.

Accordingly, the process of complying with the requirements of the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities to support marketing authorization of a companion diagnostic is costly, time-consuming and burdensome.

If ALRN-6924 received marketing approval and we, or others, later discovered that the drug was less effective than previously believed or caused undesirable side effects that were not previously identified, the ability to market the drug could have been compromised.

Clinical trials must be conducted in carefully defined subsets of patients who have agreed to enter into clinical trials. Consequently, it is possible that clinical trials may indicate an apparent positive effect of a product candidate that is greater than the actual positive effect, if any, or alternatively fail to identify undesirable side effects. If ALRN-6924 had received marketing approval and we, or others, discovered that the drug was less effective than previously believed or caused undesirable side effects that were not previously identified, a number of potentially significant negative consequences could have resulted, including:

Even if ALRN-6924 received marketing approval, it may have failed to achieve the degree of market acceptance by physicians, patients, healthcare payors and others in the medical community necessary for commercial success.

If ALRN-6924 received marketing approval, it may have nonetheless failed to gain sufficient market acceptance by physicians, patients, healthcare payors and others in the medical community. For example, current cancer treatments like chemotherapy and radiation therapy are well-established in the medical community, and doctors may not be willing to utilize chemoprotective agents in combination with effective anti-cancer therapies.

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The degree of market acceptance of ALRN-6924, if approved for commercial sale, would have depended on a number of factors, including:

We face substantial competition, which may result in others discovering, developing or commercializing products before or more successfully than we do.

The pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries generally, and the cancer drug sector targeted at treating and reducing chemotherapy-induced toxicity specifically, are highly competitive and characterized by rapidly advancing technologies, evolving understanding of disease etiology and a strong emphasis on proprietary drugs. ALRN-6924 faced competition from major pharmaceutical, specialty pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. There are a number of major pharmaceutical, specialty pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies that currently market and sell drugs or are pursuing the development of drugs for the treatment of cancer and for prevention of chemotherapy-induced toxicities. Potential competitors also include academic institutions and governmental agencies and public and private research institutions.

There are a large number of companies developing or marketing treatments for cancer and chemotherapy-induced toxicities,. Many of the companies that we competed against had significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved drugs than we did. Small or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. These competitors also may have competed with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel and establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or that may be necessary for, our programs.

The commercial opportunity of ALRN-6924 could be reduced or eliminated if competitors develop and commercialize drugs that are safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient or are less expensive. Competitors also may obtain FDA or other regulatory approval for their drugs more rapidly t. The key competitive factors affecting the success of ALRN-6924, if approved, were likely to be its efficacy, safety, convenience, price, the effectiveness of companion diagnostics in guiding the use of related therapeutics, the level of generic competition and the availability of reimbursement from government and other third-party payors.

We are aware of another company that is actively developing agents to reduce chemotherapy-induced toxicities, G1 Therapeutics, Inc. In addition, ALRN-6924 may compete with multiple approved drugs or drugs that may be approved in the future, such as plinabulin which is being developed by BeyondSpring Inc. for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia.

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If the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities approved generic versions of any of our drugs that received marketing approval, or such authorities did not grant our drugs appropriate periods of data or market exclusivity before approving generic versions of our drugs, the sales of our drugs could have been adversely affected.

Once an NDA is approved, the drug covered thereby becomes a “reference-listed drug” in the FDA’s publication, “Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluations.” Manufacturers may seek approval of generic versions of reference-listed drugs through submission of abbreviated new drug applications, or ANDAs, in the United States. In support of an ANDA, a generic manufacturer need not conduct clinical trials demonstrating safety and efficacy. Rather, the applicant generally must show that its drug has the same active ingredient(s), dosage form, strength, route of administration and conditions of use or labeling as the reference-listed drug and that the generic version is bioequivalent to the reference-listed drug, meaning it is absorbed in the body at the same rate and to the same extent. Generic drugs may be significantly less costly to bring to market than the reference-listed drug and companies that produce generic drugs are generally able to offer them at lower prices. Thus, following the introduction of a generic drug, a significant percentage of the sales of any branded product or reference-listed drug is typically lost to the generic drug.

The FDA may not approve an ANDA for a generic drug until any applicable period of non-patent exclusivity for the reference-listed drug has expired. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FDCA, provides a period of five years of non-patent exclusivity for a new drug containing a new chemical entity, or NCE. Specifically, in cases where such exclusivity has been granted, an ANDA may not be filed with the FDA and the FDA may not approve the application until the expiration of five years unless the submission is accompanied by a Paragraph IV certification that a patent covering the reference-listed drug is either invalid or will not be infringed by the generic drug, in which case the applicant may submit its application four years following approval of the reference-listed drug. Manufacturers may seek to launch these generic drugs following the expiration of the marketing exclusivity period, even if we still have patent protection for our drug.

Competition that our drugs may have faced from generic versions of our drugs could have materially and adversely impacted our future revenue, profitability and cash flows and substantially limited our ability to obtain a return on the investments we made in those drug candidates. Our future revenues, profitability and cash flows could also have been materially and adversely affected and our ability to obtain a return on the investments we made in those drug candidates may have been substantially limited if our drugs, if and when approved, were not afforded the appropriate periods of non-patent exclusivity.

Even if we were able to commercialize any product candidate, such product candidate may have become subject to unfavorable pricing regulations, third-party coverage and reimbursement policies or healthcare reform initiatives, which would harm our business.

The regulations that govern marketing approval, pricing, coverage and reimbursement for new drugs vary widely from country to country. Some countries require approval of the sale price of a drug before it can be marketed. In many countries, the pricing review period begins after marketing approval is granted. In some foreign markets, prescription pharmaceutical pricing remains subject to continuing governmental control even after initial approval is granted. As a result, we might have obtained marketing approval for a product in a particular country, but then be subject to price regulations that delayed our commercial launch of the product, possibly for lengthy time periods, and negatively impact the revenues we were able to generate from the sale of the product in that country. Adverse pricing limitations may have hindered our ability to recoup our investment in ALRN-6924, even if ALRN-6924 obtained marketing approval.

Our ability to commercialize any products successfully also would have depended in part on the extent to which reimbursement and coverage for these products and related treatments would have been available from government authorities, private health insurers and other organizations, and if reimbursement and coverage was available, the level of reimbursement and coverage. Government authorities and third-party payors, such as private health insurers and health maintenance organizations, decide which medications they will pay for and establish reimbursement levels. A primary trend in the healthcare industry in the United States and elsewhere is cost containment. Government authorities and third-party payors have attempted to control costs by limiting coverage and the amount of reimbursement for particular medications. Increasingly, the third-party payors who reimburse patients or healthcare providers, such as government and private insurance plans, are requiring that drug companies

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provide them with predetermined discounts from list prices, and are seeking to reduce the prices charged or the amounts reimbursed for medical products. We could not be sure that reimbursement would be available for any drug that we commercialized and, if reimbursement was available, we could not be sure as to the level of reimbursement. Reimbursement may impact the demand for, or the price of, any product candidate for which we may have obtained marketing approval. If reimbursement was not available or was available only to limited levels, we may not have been able to successfully commercialize any product candidate for which we obtained marketing approval.

There may be significant delays in obtaining reimbursement for newly approved drugs, and coverage may be more limited than the purposes for which the drug is approved by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. Moreover, eligibility for reimbursement does not imply that any drug will be reimbursed in all cases or at a rate that covers our costs, including research, development, manufacture, sale and distribution. Interim reimbursement levels for new drugs, if applicable, may also not be sufficient to cover our costs and may not be made permanent. Reimbursement rates may vary according to the use of the drug and the clinical setting in which it is used, may be based on reimbursement levels already set for lower cost drugs, may be incorporated into existing payments for other services and may reflect budgetary constraints or imperfections in Medicare data. Net prices for drugs may be reduced by mandatory discounts or rebates required by government healthcare programs or private payors and by any future relaxation of laws that presently restrict imports of drugs from countries where they may be sold at lower prices than in the United States. Third-party payors often rely upon Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement rates. Our inability to promptly obtain coverage and adequate reimbursement rates from both government-funded and private payors for new products that we may have developed and for which we obtained marketing approval could have had a material adverse effect on our operating results, our ability to raise capital needed to commercialize products and our overall financial condition.

Product liability lawsuits against us could cause us to incur substantial liability claims and to limit commercialization of any drugs that we may develop.

We face an inherent risk of product liability exposure related to the testing of ALRN-6924 in clinical trials. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against claims that ALRN-6924 caused injuries, we will incur substantial liability claims. Regardless of merit or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

We currently hold clinical trial liability insurance coverage for up to $5.0 million, but that coverage may not be adequate to cover any and all liability claims that we may incur. Insurance coverage is increasingly expensive. We may not be able to maintain insurance coverage at a reasonable cost or in an amount adequate to satisfy any liability claims that may arise.

Governments outside of the United States tend to impose strict price controls, which may have adversely affected our revenues from the sales of our products, if any.

In some countries, particularly member states of the European Union, the pricing of prescription pharmaceuticals is subject to governmental control. In these countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after the receipt of marketing approval for a product. In addition, there can be considerable pressure by governments and other stakeholders on prices and reimbursement levels, including as part of cost containment measures. Political, economic and regulatory developments may further complicate pricing negotiations, and pricing negotiations may continue after reimbursement has been obtained. Reference pricing used by various European Union member states and parallel distribution, or arbitrage between low-priced and high-priced

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member states, can further reduce prices. In some countries, we, or our future collaborators, may have been required to conduct a clinical trial or other studies that compare the cost-effectiveness of ALRN-6924 to other available therapies in order to obtain or maintain reimbursement or pricing approval. Publication of discounts by third-party payors or authorities may lead to further pressure on the prices or reimbursement levels within the country of publication and other countries. If reimbursement of any product candidate approved for marketing is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, or if pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels, our business could have been materially harmed.

Risks Related to Our Dependence on Third Parties

We contracted with third parties for the manufacture of ALRN-6924. This reliance on third parties increased the risk that we would not have sufficient quantities of ALRN-6924 or access to such quantities at an acceptable cost.

We do not have any manufacturing facilities or personnel. We relied on third-party manufacturers for the manufacture of ALRN-6924 for clinical trials under the guidance of members of our organization. We obtained the active pharmaceutical ingredient, or API, of ALRN-6924 from one third-party manufacturer. We engaged a separate third-party manufacturer to conduct fill-and-finish and labeling services, as well as for the storage and distribution of ALRN-6924 to clinical sites. We do not have a long-term supply agreement with either of these third-party manufacturers, and we purchased our required drug supplies on a purchase order basis.

We expected to rely on third-party manufacturers or third-party collaborators for the manufacture of the commercial supply of ALRN-6924 if it obtained marketing approval. Even if we established agreements with third-party manufacturers, reliance on third-party manufacturers entailed additional risks, including:

The facilities used by our contract manufacturers to manufacture drugs must be approved by the FDA pursuant to inspections that will be conducted after we submit an NDA to the FDA. We would not have had complete control over all aspects of the manufacturing process of, and would have been dependent on, our contract manufacturing partners for compliance with cGMP regulations for manufacturing both active drug substances and finished drug products. Third-party manufacturers may not be able to comply with cGMP regulations or similar regulatory requirements outside of the United States. If our contract manufacturers could not successfully manufacture material that conformed to our specifications and the strict regulatory requirements of the FDA or others, they would not have been able to secure and/or maintain marketing approval for their manufacturing facilities. In addition, we would not have had complete control over the ability of our contract manufacturers to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance and qualified personnel. If the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority did not approve these facilities for the manufacture of ALRN-6924 or if it withdrew any such approval, we would have needed to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which would have significantly impacted our ability to develop, obtain marketing approval for or market ALRN-6924, if approved. Our failure, or the failure of our third-party manufacturers, to comply with applicable regulations could have resulted in sanctions

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being imposed on us, including fines, injunctions, civil penalties, delays, suspension or withdrawal of approvals, license revocation, seizures or recalls of product candidates or drugs, operating restrictions and criminal prosecutions, any of which could significantly and adversely affect supplies of our drugs and harm our business and results of operations.

ALRN-6924 would have competed with other product candidates and drugs for access to manufacturing facilities. There are a limited number of manufacturers that operate under cGMP regulations and that might be capable of manufacturing for us.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

The value of our business and platform technology depends in part on our ability to protect our intellectual property. It is difficult and costly to protect our proprietary rights and technology, and we may not be able to ensure their protection.

The value of ALRN-6924 and our platform technology will depend in large part on obtaining and maintaining patent, trademark and trade secret protection of our proprietary technologies and ALRN-6924, its components, formulations, methods used to manufacture it and methods of treatment, as well as successfully defending these patents against third-party challenges. Our ability to stop unauthorized third parties from making, using, selling, offering to sell or importing our product candidates is dependent upon the extent to which we have rights under valid and enforceable patents or trade secrets that cover these activities.

The patenting process is expensive and time-consuming, and we may not be able to file and prosecute all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. In addition, we may not pursue or obtain patent protection in all relevant markets. It is also possible that we will fail to identify patentable aspects of our research and development output before it is too late to obtain patent protection. Our pending and future patent applications may not result in issued patents that protect our technology or products, in whole or in part. In addition, our existing patents and any future patents we obtain may not be sufficiently broad to prevent others from using our technology or from developing competing products and technologies.

We currently in-license certain intellectual property from President and Fellows of Harvard College, or Harvard, and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, or DFCI, and others. We rely on certain of these licensors to file and prosecute patent applications and maintain patents and otherwise protect the intellectual property we license from them. We have limited control over these activities or any other intellectual property that may be related to our in-licensed intellectual property. For example, we cannot be certain that such activities by these licensors have been or will be conducted in compliance with applicable laws and regulations or will result in valid and enforceable patents and other intellectual property rights. We have limited control over the manner in which our licensors initiate an infringement proceeding against a third-party infringer of the intellectual property rights, or defend certain of the intellectual property that is licensed to us. It is possible that the licensors’ infringement proceeding or defense activities may be less vigorous than had we conducted them ourselves.

Prior to our February 2023 decision to discontinue development of ALRN-6924, the growth of our business depended in part on our ability to acquire or in-license additional proprietary rights. Our product candidates may also have required specific formulations to work effectively and efficiently. These formulations may have been covered by intellectual property rights held by others. We may have developed products containing our compounds and pre-existing pharmaceutical compounds. These pharmaceutical compounds may have been covered by intellectual property rights held by others. We may have been required by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities to provide a companion diagnostic test or tests with our product candidates. These diagnostic test or tests may be covered by intellectual property rights held by others. We may have been unable to acquire or in-license any relevant third-party intellectual property rights that we identified as necessary or important to our business operations. We may have failed to obtain any of these licenses at a reasonable cost or on reasonable terms, if at all, which would have harmed our business. We may have needed to cease use of the compositions or methods covered by such third-party intellectual property rights, and may have needed to seek to develop alternative approaches that did not infringe on such intellectual property rights which may have entailed additional costs and development delays, even if we were able to develop such alternatives, which may not have been feasible. Even if we were able to obtain a license under such intellectual property rights, any such license may not have been non-exclusive, which may have allowed our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us.

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Additionally, we had collaborated with academic institutions to accelerate our preclinical research or development under written agreements with these institutions. In certain cases, these institutions provided us with an option to negotiate a license to any of the institution’s rights in technology resulting from the collaboration. Regardless of such option, we may have been unable to negotiate a license within the specified timeframe or under terms that are acceptable to us. If we were unable to do so, the institution may have offered the intellectual property rights to others, potentially blocking our ability to pursue our program. If we were unable to successfully obtain rights to required third-party intellectual property or to maintain the existing intellectual property rights we have, we may have had to abandon development of such program and our business and financial condition could have suffer.

The licensing and acquisition of third-party intellectual property rights is a competitive practice, and companies that may be more established, or have greater resources than we do, may also be pursuing strategies to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights that we may have considered necessary or attractive in order to commercialize our product candidates. More established companies may have a competitive advantage over us due to their larger size and cash resources or greater clinical development and commercialization capabilities.

During the course of business we have decided not to pursue certain products or processes and have terminated certain corresponding intellectual property license agreements or removed certain intellectual property from current license agreements. If it is later determined that our activities or product candidates infringe this intellectual property, then we may be liable for damages, enhanced damages or subjected to an injunction, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

The patent position of pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies generally is highly uncertain and involves complex legal and factual questions for which many legal principles remain unresolved. In recent years patent rights have been the subject of significant litigation. As a result, the issuance, scope, validity, enforceability and commercial value of our patent rights are highly uncertain. Our pending and future patent applications may not result in patents being issued in the United States or in other jurisdictions which protect our technology or products or which effectively prevent others from commercializing competitive technologies and products. Changes in either the patent laws or interpretation of the patent laws in the United States and other countries may diminish the value of our patents or narrow the scope of our patent protection. In addition, the laws of foreign countries may not protect our rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States. Publications of discoveries in the scientific literature often lag behind the actual discoveries, and patent applications in the United States and other jurisdictions are typically not published until 18 months after filing, or in some cases not at all. Therefore, we cannot be certain that we were the first to make the inventions claimed in our patents or pending patent applications, or that we were the first to file for patent protection of such inventions. In addition, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or USPTO, might require that the term of a patent issuing from a pending patent application be disclaimed and limited to the term of another patent that is commonly owned or names a common inventor. As a result, the issuance, scope, validity, enforceability and commercial value of our patent rights are highly uncertain.

Recent or future patent reform legislation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents. In March 2013, under the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act, or America Invents Act, the United States moved from a “first to invent” to a “first-to-file” system. Under a “first-to-file” system, assuming the other requirements for patentability are met, the first inventor to file a patent application generally will be entitled to a patent on the invention regardless of whether another inventor had made the invention earlier. The America Invents Act includes a number of other significant changes to U.S. patent law, including provisions that affect the way patent applications are prosecuted, redefine prior art and establish a new post-grant review system. The effects of these changes are currently unclear as the USPTO only recently developed new regulations and procedures in connection with the America Invents Act and many of the substantive changes to patent law, including the “first-to-file” provisions, only became effective in March 2013. In addition, the courts have yet to address many of these provisions and the applicability of the act and new regulations on specific patents discussed herein have not been determined and would need to be reviewed. However, the America Invents Act and its implementation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents, all of which could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition. We may become involved in opposition, interference, derivation, inter partes review or other proceedings challenging our patent rights or the patent rights of others, and the outcome of any proceedings are highly uncertain. An adverse determination in any such proceeding could reduce the scope of, or invalidate, our patent rights, allow third parties to commercialize our technology or products and compete directly with us, without payment to us, or result in our inability to manufacture or commercialize products without infringing third-party patent rights.

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Even if our patent applications issue as patents, they may not issue in a form that will provide us with any meaningful protection, prevent competitors from competing with us or otherwise provide us with any competitive advantage. Our competitors may be able to circumvent our owned or licensed patents by developing similar or alternative technologies or products in a non-infringing manner. The issuance of a patent is not conclusive as to its scope, validity or enforceability, and our owned and in-licensed patents may be challenged in the courts or patent offices in the United States and abroad. Such challenges may result in the patent claims of our owned or in-licensed patents being narrowed, invalidated or held unenforceable, which could limit our ability to stop or prevent us from stopping others from using or commercializing similar or identical technology and products, or limit the duration of the patent protection of our technology and products. Given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized. As a result, our patent portfolio may not provide us with sufficient rights to exclude others from commercializing products similar or identical to ours or otherwise provide us with a competitive advantage.

The degree of future protection for our proprietary rights is uncertain because legal means afford only limited protection and may not adequately protect our rights or permit us to gain or keep our competitive advantage. For example:

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We also may rely on trade secrets to protect our technology, especially where we do not believe patent protection is appropriate or obtainable. However, trade secrets are difficult to protect, and we have limited control over the protection of trade secrets used by our licensors, collaborators and suppliers. Although we use reasonable efforts to protect our trade secrets, our employees, consultants, contractors, outside scientific collaborators and other advisors may unintentionally or willfully disclose our information to competitors or use such information to compete with us. Moreover, our competitors may independently develop equivalent knowledge, methods and know-how. If our confidential or proprietary information is divulged to or acquired by third parties, including our competitors, our competitive position in the marketplace will be harmed and this would have a material adverse effect on our business.

If any of our owned or in-licensed patents are found to be invalid or unenforceable, or if we are otherwise unable to adequately protect our rights, it could have a material adverse impact on our business and our ability to commercialize or license our technology and product candidates. Our current owned and in-licensed patents covering our proprietary technologies and ALRN-6924 are expected to expire on various dates from 2024 through 2033, including a composition of matter patent that we own covering ALRN-6924, which expires in the United States in 2033, without taking into account any possible patent term adjustments or extensions. Our earliest in-licensed patents were only filed in the United States and may expire before, or soon after, our first product achieves marketing approval in the United States. Upon the expiration of our current patents, we may lose the right to exclude others from practicing these inventions. The expiration of these patents could also have a similar material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. We own or in-license pending patent applications covering our proprietary technologies or our product candidates that if issued as patents are expected to expire from 2024 through 2040, without taking into account any possible patent term adjustments or extensions. However, we cannot be assured that the USPTO or relevant foreign patent offices will grant any of these patent applications.

If we fail to comply with our obligations under our patent licenses with third parties, we could lose license rights that are important to our business.

We are a party to license agreements with Harvard, DFCI, Umicore Precious Metals Chemistry USA, LLC and others, pursuant to which we in-license key patent and patent applications for ALRN-6924. These existing licenses impose various diligence, milestone payment, royalty, insurance and other obligations on us. If we fail to comply with these obligations, our licensors may have the right to terminate the license, in which event we would not be able to develop or market the products covered by such licensed intellectual property.

In early 2016, Harvard communicated a claim to us that we had not achieved one or more of the diligence milestones set forth in our license agreement with Harvard and DFCI and that we were in material breach of the license agreement. We provided Harvard with a response stating our position that we had fully satisfied the diligence milestones required under the license agreement. Since that time, Harvard has never re-asserted its claim or sought to terminate the license agreement. In making its assertion, Harvard did not seek to terminate the license agreement or interfere with our p53 program, but instead proposed to convert our exclusive license with respect to certain of the patent families licensed under the license agreement to a non-exclusive license. In any event, Harvard’s proposal would not have impeded our prior development of ALRN-6924 or our other ongoing programs at that time. DFCI did not join Harvard in making this assertion or proposal and has not expressed a similar position to us. We have continued to communicate with Harvard in the ordinary course, including providing periodic reports, and have paid applicable licensing and milestone payments to Harvard pursuant to the terms of the license agreement, and we believe we remain in full compliance with the agreement.

We continue to monitor our compliance with our obligations under our license agreements on an ongoing basis. However, if in the future Harvard or DFCI were to successfully assert a material breach and if we were to lose some or all of our rights under the license agreement, our business would be adversely affected, and it may be difficult to commercialize ALRN-6924 until the applicable patents covered by the license agreement with Harvard and DFCI expired, unless we were able to negotiate a new license arrangement with those parties.

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We may incur substantial costs as a result of litigation or other proceedings relating to patents, and we may be unable to protect our rights to our products and technology.

If we or our licensors choose to go to court to stop a third party from using the inventions claimed in our owned or in-licensed patents, that third party may ask the court to rule that the patents are invalid and/or should not be enforced against that third party. These lawsuits are expensive and would consume time and other resources even if we or they, as the case may be, were successful in stopping the infringement of these patents. In addition, there is a risk that the court will decide that these patents are not valid and that we or they, as the case may be, do not have the right to stop others from using the inventions.

There is also the risk that, even if the validity of these patents is upheld, the court will refuse to stop the third party on the ground that such third party’s activities do not infringe our owned or in-licensed patents. In addition, the U.S. Supreme Court has recently changed some legal principles that affect patent applications, granted patents and assessment of the eligibility or validity of these patents. As a consequence, issued patents may be found to contain invalid claims according to the newly revised eligibility and validity standards. Some of our owned or in-licensed patents may be subject to challenge and subsequent invalidation or significant narrowing of claim scope in proceedings before the USPTO, or during litigation, under the revised criteria which could also make it more difficult to obtain patents.

We, or our licensors, may not be able to detect infringement against our owned or in-licensed patents, as the case may be, which may be especially difficult for manufacturing processes or formulation patents. Even if we or our licensors detect infringement by a third party of our owned or in-licensed patents, we or our licensors, as the case may be, may choose not to pursue litigation against or settlement with the third party. If we, or our licensors, later sue such third party for patent infringement, the third party may have certain legal defenses available to it, which otherwise would not be available except for the delay between when the infringement was first detected and when the suit was brought. Such legal defenses may make it impossible for us or our licensors to enforce our owned or in-licensed patents, as the case may be, against such third party.

If another party questions the patentability of any of our claims in our owned or in-licensed U.S. patents, the third party can request that the USPTO review the patent claims such as in an inter partes review, ex parte re-exam or post-grant review proceedings. These proceedings are expensive and may result in a loss of scope of some claims or a loss of the entire patent. In addition to potential USPTO review proceedings, we may become a party to patent opposition proceedings in the European Patent Office, or EPO, or similar proceedings in other foreign patent offices, where either our owned or in-licensed foreign patents are challenged. The costs of these opposition or similar proceedings could be substantial, and may result in a loss of scope of some claims or a loss of the entire patent. An unfavorable result at the USPTO, EPO or other patent office may result in the loss of our right to exclude others from practicing one or more of our inventions in the relevant country or jurisdiction, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

We may incur substantial costs as a result of litigation or other proceedings relating to intellectual property rights other than patents, and we may be unable to protect our rights to our products and technology.

We may rely on trade secrets and confidentiality agreements to protect our technology and know-how, especially where we do not believe patent protection is appropriate or obtainable. Enforcing a claim that a third party illegally obtained and is using any of our trade secrets is expensive and time consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, courts outside the United States are sometimes less willing to protect trade secrets. If we choose to go to court to stop a third party from using any of our trade secrets, we may incur substantial costs. These lawsuits may consume our time and other resources even if we are successful.

If we are sued for infringing patents or other intellectual property rights of third parties, it will be costly and time consuming, and an unfavorable outcome in that litigation would have a material adverse effect on our business.

Our commercial success depended upon our ability to develop, manufacture, market and sell ALRN-6924 and use our proprietary technologies without infringing the proprietary rights of third parties. U.S. and foreign issued patents and pending patent applications, which are owned by third parties, exist in the fields relating to ALRN-6924. As the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries expand and more patents are issued, the risk increases that others may assert ALRN-6924 infringes the patent rights of others. Moreover, it is not always clear to industry participants, including us, which patents cover various types of drugs, products or their methods of use or

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manufacture. Thus, because of the large number of patents issued and patent applications filed in our fields, there may be a risk that third parties may allege they have patent rights encompassing our product candidate, technologies or methods.

In addition, because some patent applications in the United States may be maintained in secrecy until the patents are issued, patent applications in the United States and many foreign jurisdictions are typically not published until 18 months after filing, and publications in the scientific literature often lag behind actual discoveries, we cannot be certain that others have not filed patent applications for technology covered by our owned and in-licensed issued patents or our pending applications, or that we or, if applicable, a licensor were the first to invent the technology. Our competitors may have filed, and may in the future file, patent applications covering our products or technology similar to ours. Any such patent application may have priority over our owned and in-licensed patent applications or patents, which could require us to obtain rights to issued patents covering such technologies. If another party has filed a U.S. patent application on inventions similar to those owned by or in-licensed to us on or before March 15, 2013, we or, in the case of in-licensed technology, the licensor may have to participate in an interference proceeding initiated by such other party to determine priority of invention in the United States. If another party has filed such patent application after March 15, 2013, a derivation proceeding in the United States can be initiated by such other party to determine whether our, or in the case of in-licensed technology, the licensor’s invention was derived from such party’s invention. If we or one of our licensors is a party to an interference proceeding involving a U.S. patent application on inventions owned by or in-licensed to us, we may incur substantial costs, divert management’s time and expend other resources, even if we are successful.

There is a substantial amount of litigation involving patent and other intellectual property rights in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries generally. We may be exposed to, or threatened with, future litigation by third parties having patent or other intellectual property rights alleging that ALRN-6924 and/or proprietary technologies infringe their intellectual property rights.

If a third party claims that we infringe its intellectual property rights, we may face a number of issues, including, but not limited to:

Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of complex patent litigation more effectively than we can because they have substantially greater resources. In addition, any uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of any litigation could have a material adverse effect on our ability to raise the funds necessary to continue our operations or could otherwise have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

We may choose to challenge the patentability of claims in a third party’s U.S. patent by requesting that the USPTO review the patent claims in an ex-parte re-exam, inter partes review or post-grant review proceedings. These proceedings are expensive and may consume our time or other resources. We may choose to challenge a third party’s patent in patent opposition proceedings in the EPO, or other foreign patent office. The costs of these opposition proceedings could be substantial, and may consume our time or other resources. If we fail to obtain a

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favorable result at the USPTO, EPO or other patent office then we may be exposed to litigation by a third party alleging that the patent may be infringed by ALRN-6924 or proprietary technologies.

We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights with patents throughout the world.

Filing, prosecuting and defending patents on ALRN-6924 throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive. Competitors may use our technology in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and, further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection but where enforcement is not as strong as in the United States. These products may compete with ALRN-6924 in jurisdictions where we do not have any issued patents and our patent claims or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from so competing. Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents and other intellectual property protection, particularly those relating to biopharmaceuticals, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents or marketing of competing products against third parties in violation of our proprietary rights generally. The initiation of proceedings by third parties to challenge the scope or validity of our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial cost and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business.

Obtaining and maintaining our patent protection depends upon compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by governmental patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated for non-compliance with these requirements.

The USPTO and various foreign governmental patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other provisions during the patent prosecution process and following the issuance of a patent. Our failure to comply with such requirements could result in abandonment or lapse of a patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. In such an event, competitors might be able to enter the market earlier than would otherwise have been the case if our patent were in force, which would have a material adverse effect on our business.

We may be subject to claims that our employees have wrongfully used or disclosed alleged trade secrets of their former employers.

As is common in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, we employ individuals who were previously employed at other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies, including our competitors or potential competitors. Although no claims against us are currently pending, we may be subject to claims that these employees or we have inadvertently or otherwise used or disclosed trade secrets or other proprietary information of their former employers. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation or other legal proceedings relating to intellectual property claims may cause us to incur significant expenses, and could distract our technical and management personnel from their normal responsibilities. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments, and, if securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a substantial adverse effect on the price of our common stock. This type of litigation or proceeding could substantially increase our operating losses and reduce our resources available for development activities. We may not have sufficient financial or other resources to adequately conduct such litigation or proceedings. Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of such litigation or proceedings more effectively than we can because of their substantially greater financial resources. Uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of patent litigation or other intellectual property related proceedings could adversely affect our ability to compete in the marketplace.

Our internal information technology systems may fail or suffer security breaches, loss of data and other disruptions, which could result in a material disruption of our programs, compromise sensitive information related to our business or prevent us from accessing critical information, trigger contractual and legal

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obligations, potentially exposing us to liability, reputational harm or otherwise adversely affecting our business and financial results.

We are dependent upon information technology systems, infrastructure and data to operate our business. In the ordinary course of business, we collect, store and transmit confidential information, including but not limited to intellectual property, proprietary business information and personal information. It is critical that we, our vendors, contractors and consultants, do so in a secure manner to maintain the availability, security, confidentiality, privacy and integrity of such confidential information.

Despite the implementation of security measures, our internal information technology systems and those of any vendors, contractors or consultants are vulnerable to damage or interruption from computer viruses, computer hackers, malicious code, employee error, theft or misuse, denial-of-service attacks, sophisticated nation-state and nation-state-supported actors, unauthorized access, natural disasters, terrorism, wars or other armed conflict, telecommunication and electrical failures or other compromise. There could be an increase in cybersecurity attacks generally as a result of the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine and the resulting sanctions imposed by the United States and European governments, together with any additional future sanctions or other actions by them.

Cyber-attacks are increasing in their frequency, sophistication and intensity, and have become increasingly difficult to detect. Cyber-attacks could include the deployment of harmful malware, ransomware, denial-of-service attacks, unauthorized access to or deletion of files, social engineering and other means to affect service reliability and threaten the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Cyber-attacks also could include phishing attempts or e-mail fraud to cause payments or information to be transmitted to an unintended recipient. We may not be able to anticipate all types of security threats, and we may not be able to implement preventive measures effective against all such security threats. The techniques used by cyber criminals change frequently, may not be recognized until launched, and can originate from a wide variety of sources, including outside groups such as external service providers, organized crime affiliates, terrorist organizations or hostile foreign governments or agencies. We cannot guarantee that the measures we have taken to date, and actions we may take in the future, will be sufficient to prevent any future breaches.

To the extent we experience a material system failure, accident, cyber-attack or security breach, it could result in a material disruption of our business operations, whether due to a loss of our trade secrets or other proprietary or confidential information or other disruptions. If we do not allocate and effectively manage the resources necessary to build and sustain the proper technology and cybersecurity infrastructure, we could suffer significant business disruption, including transaction errors, supply chain or manufacturing interruptions, processing inefficiencies, data loss or the loss of or damage to intellectual property or other proprietary information.

To the extent that any disruption or security breach were to result in a loss of, or damage to, our or our vendors’, contractors’ or consultants’ data or applications, or inappropriate disclosure of confidential or proprietary information, we could incur liability, including litigation exposure, penalties and fines, we could become the subject of regulatory action or investigation, and our competitive position and reputation could be harmed. As a result of such an event, we may be in breach of our contractual obligations. Furthermore, any such event that leads to unauthorized access, use, or disclosure of personal information, including personal information regarding our customers or employees, could harm our reputation, compel us to comply with federal and/or state breach notification laws and foreign law equivalents, subject us to mandatory corrective action, and otherwise subject us to liability under laws and regulations that protect the privacy and security of personal information, which could result in significant legal and financial exposure and reputational damages. Any of the above could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations or prospects.

The financial exposure from the events referenced above could either not be insured against or not be fully covered through any insurance that we maintain and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations or prospects. In addition, we cannot be sure that our existing insurance coverage will continue to be available on acceptable terms or that our insurers will not deny coverage as to any future claim. There can be no assurance that the limitations of liability in our contracts would be enforceable or adequate or would otherwise protect us from liabilities or damages as a result of the events referenced above.

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Risks Related to Marketing Approval and Other Legal Compliance Matters

Even if we completed the necessary preclinical studies and clinical trials, the marketing approval process is expensive, time-consuming and uncertain and may have prevented us from obtaining approvals for the commercialization of ALRN-6924.

The research, testing, manufacturing, labeling, approval, selling, marketing, promotion and distribution of drugs are subject to extensive regulation by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, whose laws and regulations may differ from country to country. We are not permitted to market ALRN-6924 in the United States or in other countries until we or they receive approval of an NDA from the FDA or marketing approval from comparable foreign regulatory authorities. We have not submitted an application for or received marketing approval for ALRN-6924 in the United States or in any other jurisdiction. We have limited experience in conducting and managing the clinical trials necessary to obtain marketing approvals, including FDA approval of an NDA.

The process of obtaining marketing approvals, both in the United States and abroad, is a lengthy, expensive and uncertain process. It may take many years, if approval is obtained at all, and can vary substantially based upon a variety of factors, including the type, complexity and novelty of the product candidates involved. Securing marketing approval requires the submission of extensive preclinical and clinical data and supporting information to regulatory authorities for each therapeutic indication to establish the product candidate’s safety and efficacy. Securing marketing approval also requires the submission of information about the product manufacturing process to, and inspection of manufacturing facilities by, the regulatory authorities. The FDA or other regulatory authorities have substantial discretion and may determine that ALRN-6924 is not safe and effective, only moderately effective or have undesirable or unintended side effects, toxicities or other characteristics that would have precluded our obtaining marketing approval or prevented or limited commercial use. Any marketing approval we ultimately may have obtained may have been limited or subject to restrictions or post-approval commitments that rendered the approved product not commercially viable.

ALRN-6924 could have failed to receive marketing approval for many reasons, including the following:

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This lengthy approval process as well as the unpredictability of clinical trial results may have resulted in our failing to obtain marketing approval to market ALRN-6924, which would have significantly harmed our business, results of operations and prospects.

In addition, changes in marketing approval policies during the development period, changes in or the enactment or promulgation of additional statutes, regulations or guidance or changes in regulatory review for each submitted drug application may cause delays in the approval or rejection of an application. Regulatory authorities have substantial discretion in the approval process and may have refused to accept any application or decided that our data are insufficient for approval and require additional preclinical studies, clinical trials or other studies and testing. In addition, varying interpretations of the data obtained from preclinical studies and clinical trials could delay, limit or prevent marketing approval of a product candidate. Any marketing approval for ALRN-6924 may have been limited or subject to restrictions or post-approval commitments that render the approved drug not commercially viable.

Failure to obtain marketing approval in foreign jurisdictions would have prevented ALRN-6924 from being marketed abroad. Any approval we may have been granted for ALRN-6924 in the United States would not have assured approval of ALRN-6924 in foreign jurisdictions.

In order to market and sell products in the European Union and many other foreign jurisdictions, separate marketing approvals must be obtained and numerous and varying regulatory requirements must be complied with. The approval procedure varies among countries and can involve additional testing. The time required to obtain approval may differ substantially from that required to obtain FDA approval. The regulatory approval process outside of the United States generally includes all of the risks associated with obtaining FDA approval. In addition, in many countries outside of the United States, it is required that the product be approved for reimbursement before the product can be approved for sale in that country. We or our third-party collaborators may not have obtained approvals from regulatory authorities outside of the United States on a timely basis, if at all. Approval by the FDA does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions, and approval by one regulatory authority outside of the United States does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions or by the FDA. However, a failure or delay in obtaining regulatory approval in one country may have a negative effect on the regulatory process in other countries. We may not have been able to file for marketing approvals and may not have received necessary approvals to commercialize our products candidates in any market.

Additionally, we could have faced heightened risks with respect to seeking marketing approval in the United Kingdom as a result of the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, commonly referred to as Brexit. The United Kingdom is no longer part of the European Single Market and European Union Customs Union. As of January 1, 2021, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, or the MHRA, became responsible for supervising medicines and medical devices in Great Britain, comprising England, Scotland and Wales under domestic law, whereas Northern Ireland will continue to be subject to European Union rules under the Northern Ireland Protocol. The MHRA will rely on the Human Medicines Regulations 2012 (SI 2012/1916) (as amended), or the HMR, as the basis for regulating medicines. The HMR has incorporated into the domestic law of the body of European Union law instruments governing medicinal products that pre-existed prior to the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union.

Since a significant proportion of the regulatory framework for pharmaceutical products in the U.K. covering the quality, safety, and efficacy of pharmaceutical products, clinical trials, marketing authorization, commercial sales, and distribution of pharmaceutical products is derived from EU directives and regulations, Brexit may have a material impact upon the regulatory regime with respect to the development, manufacture, importation, approval and commercialization of product candidates in the U.K. For example, the U.K. is no longer covered by the centralized procedures for obtaining EU-wide marketing authorization from the EMA, and a separate marketing authorization will be required to market product candidates in the U.K. Until December 31, 2023, it is possible for the MHRA to rely on a decision taken by the European Commission on the approval of a new marketing authorization via the centralized procedure.

Any delay in obtaining, or an inability to obtain, any marketing approvals, as a result of Brexit or otherwise, may have forced us to restrict or delay efforts to seek regulatory approval in the United Kingdom for our product candidates, which would have significantly and materially harmed our business.

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Even if we obtained marketing approvals for ALRN-6924, the terms of approvals and ongoing regulation of our drugs could have required substantial expenditure of resources and may have limited how we manufactured and marketed our drugs, which would have materially impaired our ability to generate revenue.

Once marketing approval has been granted, an approved drug and its manufacturer and marketer are subject to ongoing review and extensive regulation. These requirements include submissions of safety and other post-marketing information and reports, registration and listing requirements, requirements relating to manufacturing, quality control, quality assurance and corresponding maintenance of records and documents, requirements regarding the distribution of samples to physicians and recordkeeping. Requirements concerning advertising and promotion must also be complied with. Promotional communications with respect to prescription drugs are subject to a variety of legal and regulatory restrictions and must be consistent with the information in the drug’s approved labeling. In September 2021, the FDA published final regulations which describe the types of evidence that the FDA will consider in determining the intended us of a drug product.

The FDA may also impose requirements for costly post-marketing studies or clinical trials and surveillance to monitor the safety or efficacy of a drug. For example, the approval may be subject to limitations on the indicated uses for which the drug may be marketed or to the conditions of approval, including the requirement to implement a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy, which could include requirements for a restricted distribution system. Manufacturers of approved drugs and those manufacturers’ facilities are also required to comply with extensive FDA requirements, including ensuring that quality control and manufacturing procedures conform to cGMPs, which include requirements relating to quality control and quality assurance as well as the corresponding maintenance of records and documentation and reporting requirements. We and any contract manufacturers could have been subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA to monitor and ensure compliance with cGMPs.

Accordingly, if we received marketing approval for one or more of our product candidates, we and any contract manufacturers would have continued to expend time, money and effort in all areas of regulatory compliance, including manufacturing, production, product surveillance and quality control.

If we were not able to comply with post-approval regulatory requirements, we could have had the marketing approvals for our drugs withdrawn by regulatory authorities and our ability to market any future drugs could have been limited, which could have adversely affected our ability to achieve or sustain profitability. Further, the cost of compliance with post-approval regulations may have had a negative effect on our operating results and financial condition.

Inadequate funding for the FDA, the SEC and other government agencies, including from government shut downs, or other disruptions to these agencies’ operations, could hinder their ability to hire and retain key leadership and other personnel, prevent new products and services from being developed or commercialized in a timely manner or otherwise prevent those agencies from performing normal business functions on which the operation of our business relied, which could have negatively impacted our business.

The ability of the FDA to review and approve new products can be affected by a variety of factors, including government budget and funding levels, ability to hire and retain key personnel and accept the payment of user fees, and statutory, regulatory and policy changes. Average review times at the agency have fluctuated in recent years as a result. Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies may also slow the time necessary for new product candidates to be reviewed and/or approved by necessary government agencies, which would have adversely affected our business. In addition, government funding of the SEC and other government agencies on which our operations may relied, including those that fund research and development activities, is subject to the political process, which is inherently fluid and unpredictable.

Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies may also slow the time necessary for new product candidates to be reviewed and/or approved by necessary government agencies, which would have adversely affected our business. For example, over the last several years the U.S. government has shut down several times and certain regulatory agencies, such as the FDA and the SEC, have had to furlough critical FDA, SEC and other government employees and stop critical activities. If a prolonged government shutdown occurs, it could significantly impact the ability of the FDA to timely review and process our regulatory submissions, which could have had a material adverse effect on our business. Further, future government shutdowns could have impacted our ability to access the public markets and obtain necessary capital in order to properly capitalize and continue our operations.

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Separately, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, a number of companies announced receipt of complete response letters due to the FDA’s inability to complete required inspections for their applications. As of early 2022, the FDA has resumed inspections of domestic and foreign facilities to ensure timely reviews of applications for medical products. However, the FDA may not be able to continue its current pace and review timelines could be extended, including where a pre-approval inspection or an inspection of clinical sites is required. Moreover, on January 30, 2023, the Biden administration announced that it will end the public health emergency declarations related to COVID-19 on May 11, 2023. On January 31, 2023, the FDA indicated that it would soon issue a Federal Register notice describing how the termination of the public health emergency will impact the agency’s COVID-19 related guidance. Regulatory authorities outside the U.S. have adopted or may adopt similar restrictions or other policy measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and may experience delays in their regulatory activities

If a prolonged government shutdown or other disruption occurs, it could significantly impact the ability of the FDA to timely review and process regulatory submissions, which could have had a material adverse effect on our business. Future shutdowns or other disruptions could also affect other government agencies such as the SEC, which may also have impacted our business by delaying review of our public filings, to the extent such review was necessary, and our ability to access the public markets.

If ALRN-6924 received marketing approval, it would have been subject to substantial penalties if weor any future collaborator failed to comply with regulatory requirements or experienced unanticipated problems following approval.

If ALRN-6924had received marketing approval, ALRN-6924 would have been subject to continual review by the FDA and other regulatory authorities.

The FDA and other agencies, including the Department of Justice, or the DOJ, closely regulate and monitor the post-approval marketing and promotion of drugs to ensure that they are manufactured, marketed and distributed only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved labeling. The FDA imposes stringent restrictions on manufacturers’ communications regarding off-label use and if ALRN-6924 was not marketed for the indications for which it received marketing approval , we or any future collaborator may have been subject to warnings or enforcement action for off-label marketing. Violation of the FDCA and other statutes, including the False Claims Act, relating to the promotion and advertising of prescription drugs may lead to investigations or allegations of violations of federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws and state consumer protection laws.

In addition, later discovery of previously unknown adverse events or other problems with our drugs or their manufacturers or manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may have yielded various results, including:

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Similar restrictions apply to the approval of our products in the European Union. The holder of a marketing authorization is required to comply with a range of requirements applicable to the manufacturing, marketing, promotion and sale of medicinal products. These include: compliance with the European Union’s stringent pharmacovigilance or safety reporting rules, which can impose post-authorization studies and additional monitoring obligations; the manufacturing of authorized medicinal products, for which a separate manufacturer’s license is mandatory; and the marketing and promotion of authorized drugs, which are strictly regulated in the European Union and are also subject to EU Member State laws. The failure to comply with these and other European Union requirements can also lead to significant penalties and sanctions.

Recently enacted and future legislation may have increased the difficulty and cost to obtain marketing approval of and commercialize ALRN-6924 and affected the prices at which of ALRN-6924 may have been sold.

In the United States and some foreign jurisdictions, there have been a number of legislative and regulatory changes and proposed changes regarding the healthcare system that could have prevented or delayed marketing approval of ALRN-6924, restricted or regulated post-approval activities and affected the ability to profitably sell ALRN-6924. We expect that current laws, as well as other healthcare reform measures that may be adopted in the future, may result in more rigorous coverage criteria and in additional downward pressure on the price that we, or any collaborators, may have received for any approved products. If reimbursement of our products was unavailable or limited in scope, our business could have been materially harmed.

In the United States, the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003, or Medicare Modernization Act, changed the way Medicare covers and pays for pharmaceutical products. The legislation expanded Medicare coverage for drug purchases by the elderly and introduced a new reimbursement methodology based on average sales prices for physician-administered drugs. In addition, this legislation provided authority for limiting the number of drugs that will be covered in any therapeutic class. Cost reduction initiatives and other provisions of this legislation could decrease the coverage and price that we, or any future collaborators, may receive for any approved products. While the Medicare Modernization Act applies only to drug benefits for Medicare beneficiaries, private payors often follow Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement rates. Therefore, any reduction in reimbursement that results from the Medicare Modernization Act may result in a similar reduction in payments from private payors.

In March 2010, President Obama signed into law the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Affordability Reconciliation Act, or collectively the ACA. In August 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011, among other things, created measures for spending reductions by Congress. This legislation resulted in aggregate reductions to Medicare payments to providers of up to 2% per fiscal year, which will remain in effect through 2031 under the CARES Act. These Medicare sequester reductions were suspended through the end of June 2022, with the full 2% cut resuming thereafter. The American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, among other things, reduced Medicare payments to several providers and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years. These laws may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding and otherwise have affected the prices we may have obtained for ALRN-6924 for which we may have obtained regulatory approval or the frequency with which any such product candidate is prescribed or used. Indeed, under current legislation, the actual reductions in Medicare payments may vary up to 4%.

Since enactment of the ACA, there have been, and continue to be, numerous legal challenges and Congressional actions to repeal and replace provisions of the law. For example, with enactment of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, or the TCJA, which was signed by President Trump on December 22, 2017, Congress repealed the “individual mandate.” The repeal of this provision, which requires most Americans to carry a minimal level of health insurance, became effective in 2019.

On November 10, 2020, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments to a case challenging the ACA. On February 10, 2021, the Biden Administration withdrew the federal government’s support for overturning the ACA. On June

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17, 2021, the Supreme Court rejected this challenge to the ACA. Litigation and legislation over the ACA are likely to continue, with unpredictable and uncertain results.

The Trump Administration also took executive actions to undermine or delay implementation of the ACA, including directing federal agencies with authorities and responsibilities under the ACA to waive, defer, grant exemptions from, or delay the implementation of any provision of the ACA that would impose a fiscal or regulatory burden on states, individuals, healthcare providers, health insurers, or manufacturers of pharmaceuticals or medical devices. On January 28, 2021, however, President Biden issued a new Executive Order which directs federal agencies to reconsider rules and other policies that limit Americans’ access to health care, and consider actions that will protect and strengthen that access. This Executive Order also directs the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to create a special enrollment period for the Health Insurance Marketplace in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. We cannot predict how federal agencies will respond to such Executive Orders.

We expect that these healthcare reforms, as well as other healthcare reform measures that may be adopted in the future, may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding, more rigorous coverage criteria, new payment methodologies and additional downward pressure on the price that we may have received for any approved product and/or the level of reimbursement physicians receive for administering any approved product we might have brought to market. Reductions in reimbursement levels may negatively impact the prices we may have received or the frequency with which our products would have been prescribed or administered. Any reduction in reimbursement from Medicare or other government programs may result in a similar reduction in payments from private payors. Accordingly, such reforms, if enacted, could have had an adverse effect on anticipated revenue from product candidates that we may have successfully developed and for which we may have obtained marketing approval and may have affected our overall financial condition and ability to develop or commercialize product candidates.

The prices of prescription pharmaceuticals in the United States and foreign jurisdictions are subject to considerable legislative and executive actions and could impact the prices we may have obtained for products, if and when licensed.

The prices of prescription pharmaceuticals have also been the subject of considerable discussion in the United States. There have been several recent U.S. congressional inquiries, as well as proposed and enacted state and federal legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to pharmaceutical pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reduce the costs of pharmaceuticals under Medicare and Medicaid. In 2020, President Trump issued several executive orders intended to lower the costs of prescription products and certain provisions in these orders have been incorporated into regulations. These regulations include an interim final rule implementing a most favored nation model for prices that would tie Medicare Part B payments for certain physician-administered pharmaceuticals to the lowest price paid in other economically advanced countries, effective January 1, 2021. That rule, however, has been subject to a nationwide preliminary injunction and, on December 29, 2021, CMS issued a final rule to rescind it. With issuance of this rule, CMS stated that it will explore all options to incorporate value into payments for Medicare Part B pharmaceuticals and improve beneficiaries' access to evidence-based care.

In addition, in October 2020, HHS and the FDA published a final rule allowing states and other entities to develop a Section 804 Importation Program, or SIP, to import certain prescription drugs from Canada into the United States. The final rule is currently the subject of ongoing litigation, but at least six states (Vermont, Colorado, Florida, Maine, New Mexico, and New Hampshire) have passed laws allowing for the importation of drugs from Canada with the intent of developing SIPs for review and approval by the FDA. Further, on November 20, 2020, HHS finalized a regulation removing safe harbor protection for price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, either directly or through pharmacy benefit managers, unless the price reduction is required by law. The implementation of the rule has been delayed by the Biden administration from January 1, 2022 to January 1, 2023 in response to ongoing litigation. The final rule would eliminate the current safe harbor for Medicare drug rebates and create new safe harbors for beneficiary point-of-sale discounts and pharmacy benefit manager ("PBM") service fees. It originally was set to go into effect on January 1, 2022, but with passage of the Inflation Reduction Act has been delayed by Congress to January 1, 2032.

On July 9, 2021, President Biden signed Executive Order 14063, which focuses on, among other things, the price of pharmaceuticals. The Order directs the Department of Health and Human Services, or HHS, to create a plan within 45 days to combat “excessive pricing of prescription pharmaceuticals and enhance domestic pharmaceutical

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supply chains, to reduce the prices paid by the federal government for such pharmaceuticals, and to address the recurrent problem of price gouging.” On September 9, 2021, HHS released its plan to reduce pharmaceutical prices. The key features of that plan are to: (a) make pharmaceutical prices more affordable and equitable for all consumers and throughout the health care system by supporting pharmaceutical price negotiations with manufacturers; (b) improve and promote competition throughout the prescription pharmaceutical industry by supporting market changes that strengthen supply chains, promote biosimilars and generic drugs, and increase transparency; and (c) foster scientific innovation to promote better healthcare and improve health by supporting public and private research and making sure that market incentives promote discovery of valuable and accessible new treatments.

More recently, on August 16, 2022, the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, or IRA, was signed into law by President Biden. The new legislation has implications for Medicare Part D, which is a program available to individuals who are entitled to Medicare Part A or enrolled in Medicare Part B to give them the option of paying a monthly premium for outpatient prescription drug coverage. Among other things, the IRA requires manufacturers of certain drugs to engage in price negotiations with Medicare (beginning in 2026), with prices that can be negotiated subject to a cap; imposes rebates under Medicare Part B and Medicare Part D to penalize price increases that outpace inflation (first due in 2023); and replaces the Part D coverage gap discount program with a new discounting program (beginning in 2025). The IRA permits the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to implement many of these provisions through guidance, as opposed to regulation, for the initial years.

Specifically, with respect to price negotiations, Congress authorized Medicare to negotiate lower prices for certain costly single-source drug and biologic products that do not have competing generics or biosimilars and are reimbursed under Medicare Part B and Part D. CMS may negotiate prices for ten high-cost drugs paid for by Medicare Part D starting in 2026, followed by 15 Part D drugs in 2027, 15 Part B or Part D drugs in 2028, and 20 Part B or Part D drugs in 2029 and beyond. This provision applies to drug products that have been approved for at least 9 years and biologics that have been licensed for 13 years, but it does not apply to drugs and biologics that have been approved for a single rare disease or condition. Nonetheless, since CMS may establish a maximum price for these products in price negotiations, we would have been fully at risk of government action if our products were the subject of Medicare price negotiations. Moreover, given the risk that could be the case, these provisions of the IRA may also have further heightened the risk that we would not have been able to achieve the expected return on our drug products or full value of our patents protecting our products if prices are set after such products had been on the market for nine years.

Further, the legislation subjects drug manufacturers to civil monetary penalties and a potential excise tax for failing to comply with the legislation by offering a price that is not equal to or less than the negotiated “maximum fair price” under the law or for taking price increases that exceed inflation. The legislation also requires manufacturers to pay rebates for drugs in Medicare Part D whose price increases exceed inflation. The new law also caps Medicare out-of-pocket drug costs at an estimated $4,000 a year in 2024 and, thereafter beginning in 2025, at 2,000 a year. In addition, the IRA potentially raises legal risks with respect to individuals participating in a Medicare Part D prescription drug plan who may experience a gap in coverage if they required coverage above their initial annual coverage limit before they reached the higher threshold, or “catastrophic period” of the plan. Individuals requiring services exceeding the initial annual coverage limit and below the catastrophic period, must pay 100% of the cost of their prescriptions until they reach the catastrophic period. Among other things, the IRA contains many provisions aimed at reducing this financial burden on individuals by reducing the co-insurance and co-payment costs, expanding eligibility for lower income subsidy plans, and price caps on annual out-of-pocket expenses, each of which could have potential pricing and reporting implications

At the state level, individual states are increasingly aggressive in passing legislation and implementing regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. In addition, regional healthcare organizations and individual hospitals are increasingly using bidding procedures to determine what pharmaceutical products and which suppliers will be included in their prescription drug and other healthcare programs. These measures could have reduced the ultimate demand for our products, once approved, or put pressure on our product pricing. We expect that additional state and federal healthcare reform measures will be adopted in the future, any of which could limit the amounts that federal and state governments will pay for healthcare products and services, which could have resulted in reduced demand for our product candidates or additional pricing pressures.

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In the E.U., similar political, economic and regulatory developments may have affected our ability to profitably commercialize our product candidates, if approved. In markets outside of the U.S. and the E.U., reimbursement and healthcare payment systems vary significantly by country and many countries have instituted price ceilings on specific products and therapies. In many countries, including those of the E.U., the pricing of prescription pharmaceuticals is subject to governmental control and access. In these countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after the receipt of marketing approval for a product. To obtain reimbursement or pricing approval in some countries, we or our collaborators may have been required to conduct a clinical trial that compares the cost-effectiveness of our product to other available therapies. If reimbursement of our products was unavailable or limited in scope or amount or if pricing was set at unsatisfactory levels, our business could have been materially harmed.

We may have needed to seek to obtain certain regulatory designations for ALRN-6924. We may not have received such designations, and even if we did, such designation may not have led to a faster development or regulatory review or approval process.

We may have needed to seek to obtain breakthrough therapy designation, fast track designation, or priority review designation for ALRN-6924. A breakthrough therapy is defined as a drug that is intended, alone or in combination with one or more other drugs, to treat a serious condition, and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. FDA fast track designation is possible for drugs intended for the treatment of a serious condition and nonclinical or clinical data demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical need for this condition. In addition, if the FDA determines that a product candidate offers a treatment for a serious condition and, if approved, the product would provide a significant improvement in safety or effectiveness, the FDA may designate the product candidate for priority review. Drugs designated as breakthrough therapies by the FDA may also be eligible for priority review if supported by clinical data at the time the NDA is submitted to the FDA.

Such regulatory designations are within the discretion of the FDA, and the FDA may not have approved any application that we submitted. Even if we were to obtain breakthrough designation or fast track designation, the FDA may subsequently withdraw such designation if the FDA determines that the designation no longer meets the conditions for qualification or is no longer supported by data from our clinical development program. In addition, receipt of any such designations may not result in a faster development or regulatory review or approval process compared to drugs considered for approval under conventional FDA procedures, and does not assure ultimate approval by the FDA of any drug candidates so designated.

If we had continued development of ALRN-6924, our relationships with healthcare providers, physicians and third-party payors would have been subject to applicable anti-kickback, fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations, which could have exposed us to penalties, including criminal sanctions, civil penalties, contractual damages, reputational harm and diminished profits and future earnings.

If we had continued development of ALRN-6924, our relationships with healthcare providers, physicians and third-party payors would have been subject to additional healthcare statutory and regulatory requirements and enforcement by the federal government and the states and foreign governments. Arrangements with healthcare providers, physicians and third-party payors and patients may have exposed us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations that may have constrained the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we would have marketed, sold and distributed our products. Restrictions under applicable federal and state healthcare laws and regulations include the following:

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Some state laws require pharmaceutical companies to comply with the pharmaceutical industry’s voluntary compliance guidelines and the relevant compliance guidance promulgated by the federal government and require drug manufacturers to report information related to payments and other transfers of value to physicians and other healthcare providers or marketing expenditures and pricing information. State and foreign laws also govern the privacy and security of health information in some circumstances, many of which differ from each other in significant ways and often are not preempted by HIPAA, thus complicating compliance efforts.

Efforts to ensure that our business arrangements with third parties would comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations would involve substantial costs. It is possible that governmental authorities would conclude that our business practices may not comply with current or future statutes, regulations or case law involving applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations were found to be in violation of any of these laws or any other governmental regulations that may apply to us, we may have been subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, imprisonment, exclusion of drugs from government funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations. Although effective compliance programs can mitigate the risk of investigation and prosecution for violations of these laws, these risks cannot be entirely eliminated. Any action against us for an alleged or suspected violation would cause us to incur significant legal expenses and would divert our management’s attention from the operation of our business, even if our defense was successful. If any of the physicians or other healthcare providers or entities with whom we expect to do business was found to be not in compliance with applicable laws, it may have been costly to us in terms of money, time and resources, and they may have been subject to criminal, civil or administrative sanctions, including exclusions from government-funded healthcare programs.

Our employees may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including non-compliance with regulatory standards and requirements, which could cause significant liability for us and harm our reputation.

We are exposed to the risk of employee fraud or other misconduct, including intentional failures to comply with FDA regulations or similar regulations of comparable foreign regulatory authorities, provide accurate information to the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, comply with manufacturing standards we may establish, comply with federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations and similar laws and regulations established and enforced by comparable foreign regulatory authorities, report financial information or data accurately or disclose unauthorized activities to us. In particular, sales, marketing and business arrangements in

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the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, incentive programs and other business arrangements. Employee misconduct could also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of clinical trials, which could result in regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation. It is not always possible to identify and deter employee misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws, standards or regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business and results of operations, including the imposition of significant fines or other sanctions.

If we fail to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could become subject to fines or penalties or incur costs that could have a material adverse effect on our business.

We are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. Our operations may have involved the use of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials. Our operations may also have produced hazardous waste products. We generally contracted with third parties for the disposal of these materials and wastes. We cannot eliminate the risk of contamination or injury from these materials. In the event of contamination or injury resulting from our use of hazardous materials, we could have been held liable for any resulting damages, and any liability could have exceeded our resources. We also could have incurred significant costs associated with civil or criminal fines and penalties.

Although we maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials, this insurance may not have provided adequate coverage against potential liabilities. We do not maintain insurance for environmental liability or toxic tort claims that may be asserted against us in connection with our storage or disposal of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials.

In addition, we may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. These current or future laws and regulations could have impaired our research, development or commercialization efforts. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations also may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions.

Compliance with global privacy and data security requirements could result in additional costs and liabilities to us or inhibit our ability to collect and process data globally, and the failure to comply with such requirements could subject us to significant fines and penalties, which may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

The regulatory framework for the collection, use, safeguarding, sharing, transfer and other processing of information worldwide is rapidly evolving and is likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future. Globally, virtually every jurisdiction in which we operate has established its own data security and privacy frameworks with which we must comply. For example, the collection, use, disclosure, transfer, or other processing of personal data regarding individuals in the European Union, including personal health data, is subject to the EU General Data Protection Regulation, or the GDPR, which took effect across all member states of the European Economic Area, or EEA, in May 2018. The GDPR is wide-ranging in scope and imposes numerous requirements on companies that process personal data, including requirements relating to processing health and other sensitive data, obtaining consent of the individuals to whom the personal data relates, providing information to individuals regarding data processing activities, implementing safeguards to protect the security and confidentiality of personal data, providing notification of data breaches, and taking certain measures when engaging third-party processors. The GDPR increases our obligations with respect to clinical trials conducted in the EEA by expanding the definition of personal data to include coded data and requiring changes to informed consent practices and more detailed notices for clinical trial subjects and investigators. In addition, the GDPR also imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data to countries outside the European Union, including the United States and, as a result, increases the scrutiny that clinical trial sites located in the EEA should apply to transfers of personal data from such sites to countries that are considered to lack an adequate level of data protection, such as the United States. The GDPR also permits data protection authorities to require destruction of improperly gathered or used personal information and/or impose

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substantial fines for violations of the GDPR, which can be up to four percent of global revenues or €20 million, whichever is greater, and it also confers a private right of action on data subjects and consumer associations to lodge complaints with supervisory authorities, seek judicial remedies, and obtain compensation for damages resulting from violations of the GDPR. In addition, the GDPR provides that EU member states may make their own further laws and regulations limiting the processing of personal data, including genetic, biometric or health data.

Similar actions are either in place or under way in the United States. There are a broad variety of data protection laws that are applicable to our activities, and a wide range of enforcement agencies at both the state and federal levels that can review companies for privacy and data security concerns based on general consumer protection laws. The Federal Trade Commission and state Attorneys General all are aggressive in reviewing privacy and data security protections for consumers. New laws also are being considered at both the state and federal levels. For example, the California Consumer Privacy Act, which went into effect on January 1, 2020, is creating similar risks and obligations as those created by the GDPR, though the California Consumer Privacy Act does exempt certain information collected as part of a clinical trial subject to the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects (the Common Rule). In November 2020 California voters passed a ballot initiative for the California Privacy Rights Act, or the CPRA, which went into effect on January 1, 2023, and significantly expanded the CCPA to incorporate additional GDPR-like provisions including requiring that the use, retention, and sharing of personal information of California residents be reasonably necessary and proportionate to the purposes of collection or processing, granting additional protections for sensitive personal information, and requiring greater disclosures related to notice to residents regarding retention of information. The CPRA also created a new enforcement agency – the California Privacy Protection Agency – whose sole responsibility is to enforce the CPRA, which will further increase compliance risk. The provisions in the CPRA may apply to some of our business activities. In addition, other states, including Virginia, Colorado, Utah, and Connecticut, already have passed state privacy laws. Virginia’s privacy law also went into effect on January 1, 2023, and the laws in the other three states will go into effect later in the year. Other states will be considering these laws in the future, and Congress has also been debating passing a federal privacy law. If we decide to pursue further product development efforts, these laws may impact our business activities, including our identification of research subjects, relationships with business partners and ultimately the marketing and distribution of any products we may develop.

Given the breadth and depth of changes in data protection obligations, preparing for and complying with these requirements is rigorous and time intensive and requires significant resources and a review of our technologies, systems and practices, as well as those of any third-party collaborators, service providers, contractors or consultants that process or transfer personal data collected in the European Union. The GDPR and other changes in laws or regulations associated with the enhanced protection of certain types of sensitive data, such as healthcare data or other personal information from our clinical trials, could require us to change our business practices and put in place additional compliance mechanisms, may interrupt or delay our development, regulatory and commercialization activities and increase our cost of doing business, and could lead to government enforcement actions, private litigation and significant fines and penalties against us and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations. Similarly, failure to comply with federal and state laws regarding privacy and security of personal information could expose us to fines and penalties under such laws. Even if we are not determined to have violated these laws, government investigations into these issues typically require the expenditure of significant resources and generate negative publicity, which could harm our reputation and our business.

Risks Related to Our Common Stock

Provisions in our corporate charter documents and under Delaware law could make an acquisition of us, which may be beneficial to our stockholders, more difficult and may prevent attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management.

Provisions in our certificate of incorporation and our bylaws may discourage, delay or prevent a merger, acquisition or other change in control of us that stockholders may consider favorable, including transactions in which stockholders might otherwise receive a premium for shares of common stock. These provisions could also limit the price that investors might be willing to pay in the future for shares of our common stock, thereby depressing the market price of our common stock. In addition, because our board of directors is responsible for appointing the members of our management team, these provisions may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our

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stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors. Among other things, these provisions:

Moreover, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which prohibits a person who owns in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock from merging or combining with us for a period of three years after the date of the transaction in which the person acquired in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock, unless the merger or combination is approved in a prescribed manner.

Our stock price has in the past and may in the future fail to meet minimum requirements for continued listing on the Nasdaq Capital Market. Our ability to publicly or privately sell equity securities and the liquidity of our common stock could be adversely affected if we are delisted from the Nasdaq Capital Market or if we are unable to transfer our listing to another stock market.

In the past we have received written notification from the Nasdaq Stock Market, or Nasdaq, informing us that we were not in compliance with certain continued listing requirements of the Nasdaq Capital Market. As previously disclosed, on December 16, 2021, we received a deficiency letter from the Listing Qualifications Department of Nasdaq notifying us that, for the last 30 consecutive business days, the bid price for our common stock had closed below the minimum $1.00 per share requirement for continued inclusion on the Nasdaq Capital Market pursuant to Nasdaq Listing Rule 5550(a)(2), or the Bid Price Rule. On June 7, 2022, we received notification from Nasdaq notifying us that we were provided an additional 180 calendar day period or until December 5, 2022 to regain compliance with the Bid Price Rule.

We completed a 1-for-20 reverse stock split on our common stock on November 10, 2022. We regained compliance with the Bid Price Rule after the closing bid price of our common stock was above $1.00 per share for 10 consecutive business days from November 11, 2022 to November 25, 2022. On November 28, 2022, we received a letter from Nasdaq notifying us that we had regained compliance with the Bid Price Rule and have remained in compliance.

There can be no assurance that we will continue to maintain compliance with the requirements for listing our common stock on Nasdaq. Any potential delisting of our common stock from the Nasdaq Capital Market would likely result in decreased liquidity and increased volatility for our common stock and would adversely affect our ability to raise additional capital or to enter into strategic transactions. Any potential delisting of our common stock from the Nasdaq Capital Market would also make it more difficult for our stockholders to sell our common stock in the public market

An active trading market for our common stock may not be sustained.

Our shares of common stock began trading on The Nasdaq Global Market June 29, 2017 and transferred to The Nasdaq Capital Market, effective December 30, 2019. Given the limited trading history of our common stock, there is a risk that an active trading market for our shares may not be sustained, which could put downward pressure

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on the market price of our common stock and thereby affect the ability of stockholders to sell their shares. An inactive trading market for our common stock may also impair our ability to raise capital to continue to fund our operations by selling shares and may impair our ability to acquire other companies or technologies by using our shares as consideration.

If securities analysts do not publish research or reports about our business or if they publish negative evaluations of our stock, the price of our stock could decline.

The trading market for our common stock relies in part on the research and reports that industry or financial analysts publish about us or our business. If few analysts commence, or if analysts discontinue, coverage of us, the trading price of our stock would likely decrease. If one or more of the analysts covering our business downgrade their evaluations of our stock, the price of our stock could decline. If one or more of these analysts cease to cover our stock, we could lose visibility in the market for our stock, which in turn could cause our stock price to decline.

The price of our common stock is volatile and may fluctuate substantially, which could result in substantial losses for our stockholders.

Our stock price is volatile. During the period from June 28, 2017 to March 16, 2023, the closing price of our common stock ranged from a high of $298.20 per share to a low of $1.30 per share. The stock market in general and the market for pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies in particular have experienced extreme volatility that has often been unrelated to the operating performance of particular companies. As a result of this volatility, our stockholders may not be able to sell their shares at or above the price they paid for their shares. The market price for our common stock may be influenced by many factors, including:

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We could be subject to securities class action litigation.

In the past, securities class action litigation has often been brought against a company following a decline in the market price of its securities. This risk is especially relevant for us because pharmaceutical companies have experienced significant stock price volatility in recent years. If we face such litigation, it could result in substantial costs and a diversion of management’s attention and our resources, which could harm our business.

We are a “smaller reporting company” and the reduced disclosure requirements applicable to smaller reporting companies may make our common stock less attractive to investors.

We are a smaller reporting company, and we will remain a smaller reporting company until the fiscal year following the determination that our voting and non-voting common stock held by non-affiliates is more than $250 million measured on the last business day of our second fiscal quarter, or our annual revenues are less than $100 million during the most recently completed fiscal year and our voting and non-voting common stock held by non-affiliates is more than $700 million measured on the last business day of our second fiscal quarter. Smaller reporting companies are able to provide simplified executive compensation disclosure, are exempt from the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 and have certain other reduced disclosure obligations, including, among other things, being required to provide only two years of audited financial statements and not being required to provide selected financial data, supplemental financial information or risk factors.

We have elected to take advantage of certain of the reduced reporting obligations. Investors may find our common stock less attractive as a result of our reliance on these exemptions. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock and our stock price may be more volatile.

Our management is required to devote substantial time to new compliance initiatives. Any failure to maintain effective internal control over our financial reporting could result in an adverse reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements.

As a public company, we incur, and particularly after we are no longer a “smaller reporting company” we will incur, significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. In addition, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 and rules subsequently implemented by the SEC and Nasdaq have imposed various requirements on public companies, including establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and corporate governance practices. We have had to hire additional accounting, finance, and other personnel in connection with our becoming a public company, and our efforts to comply with the requirements of being a public company, and our management and other personnel devote a substantial amount of time towards maintaining compliance with these requirements. These requirements increase our legal and financial compliance costs and will make some activities more time-consuming and costly.

In addition, Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 requires us, on an annual basis, to review and evaluate our internal controls. To maintain compliance with Section 404, we are required to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. We will need to continue to dedicate internal resources, continue to engage outside consultants, and follow a detailed work plan to continue to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue to improve control processes as appropriate, validate through testing that controls are functioning as documented, and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. There is a risk that neither we nor our independent registered public accounting firm will be able to conclude within the prescribed timeframe that our internal control over financial reporting is effective as required by Section 404. This could result in an adverse reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements.

Changes in tax laws or in their implementation or interpretation may adversely affect our business and financial condition.

Changes in tax law may adversely affect our business or financial condition. . The TCJA, as amended by the CARES Act, significantly reformed the U.S. Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code. The TCJA, among other things, contained significant changes to corporate taxation, including a reduction of the corporate tax rate from a top marginal rate of 35% to a flat rate of 21% and, the limitation of the deduction for net operating losses to 80% of current year taxable income and the elimination of loss carrybacks for losses arising in taxable years

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beginning after December 31, 2017 (though any such net operating losses may be carried forward indefinitely. The CARES Act delayed the 80% net operating loss limitation and allowed losses to be carried back five years for net operating losses generated in years beginning after December 31, 2017 and before December 1, 2021. In addition, beginning in 2022, the TCJA eliminates the option to deduct research and development expenditures currently and requires corporations to capitalize and amortize them over five years.

In addition to the CARES Act, as part of Congress’ response to the COVID-19 pandemic, economic relief legislation has been enacted in 2020 and 2021 containing tax provisions. The Inflation Reduction Act, or IRA, was also signed into law in August 2022. The IRA introduced new tax provisions, including a 1% excise tax imposed on certain stock repurchases by publicly traded corporations. The 1% excise tax generally applies to any acquisition by the publicly traded corporation (or certain of its affiliates) of stock of the publicly traded corporation in exchange for money or other property (other than stock of the corporation itself), subject to a de minimis exception. Thus, the excise tax could apply to certain transactions that are not traditional stock repurchases.

Regulatory guidance under the TCJA, the IRA, and such additional legislation is and continues to be forthcoming, and such guidance could ultimately increase or lessen impact of these laws on our business and financial condition. In addition, it is uncertain if and to what extent various states will conform to the TCJA, the IRA, and additional tax legislation.

We might not be able to utilize a significant portion of our net operating loss carryforwards and research and development tax credit carryforwards.

As of December 31, 2022, we had federal net operating loss carryforwards of $239.6 million, of which $129.6 million will, if not utilized, begin to expire in 2029. As of December 31, 2022, we had state net operating carryforwards of $231.6 million, which will, if not utilized, begin to expire in 2030. Our federal and state research and development tax credit carryforwards of $2.7 million and $1.9 million, respectively, will, if not utilized, begin to expire in 2025 and 2026, respectively. We also have federal orphan drug tax credit carryforwards of $2.4 million which begin to expire in 2039. These net operating loss and tax credit carryforwards could expire unused and be unavailable to offset future income tax liabilities.

We have a history of cumulative losses and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses in the foreseeable future; thus, we do not know whether or when we will generate taxable income necessary to utilize our net operating losses or research and development tax credit carryforwards.

In addition, as described above in “Changes in tax laws or in their implementation or interpretation may adversely affect our business and financial condition,” the TCJA, as amended by the CARES Act, includes changes to U.S. federal tax rates and the rules governing net operating loss carryforwards that may significantly impact our ability to utilize our net operating losses to offset taxable income in the future.

Furthermore, under Section 382 of the Code and corresponding provisions of state law, if a corporation undergoes an “ownership change,” which is generally defined as a greater than 50% change, by value, in its equity ownership by certain stockholders over a three-year period, the corporation’s ability to use its pre-change net operating loss carryforwards and other pre-change tax attributes to offset its post-change income may be limited.

We have not conducted a study to assess whether a change of control has occurred or whether there have been multiple changes of control since inception due to the significant complexity and cost associated with such a study. We may have experienced such ownership changes in the past and may experience such ownership changes in the future as a result of any strategic transaction. If we have experienced, or do experience, a change of control, as defined by Section 382, at any time since inception, our ability to use our historical net operating loss and tax credit carryforwards is materially limited, it would harm our future operating results by effectively increasing our future tax obligations.

There is also a risk that due to regulatory changes, such as suspensions on the use of net operating losses, or other unforeseen reasons, our existing net operating losses could expire or otherwise become unavailable to offset future income tax liabilities. In addition, state net operating losses generated in one state cannot be used to offset income generated in another state. For these reasons, even if we attain profitability, we may be unable to use a material portion of our net operating losses and other tax attributes.

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Because we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our capital stock for the foreseeable future, capital appreciation, if any, of our common stock will be our stockholders’ sole source of gain.

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our capital stock. We currently intend to retain all of our future earnings, if any, to finance the growth and development of our business. In addition, the terms of any future debt agreements may preclude us from paying dividends. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, of our common stock will be our stockholders’ sole source of gain for the foreseeable future.

A significant portion of our total outstanding shares may be sold into the market at any time, which could cause the market price of our common stock to drop significantly, even if our business is doing well.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could occur at any time. These sales, or the perception in the market that the holders of a large number of shares intend to sell shares, could reduce the market price of our common stock. As of March 16, 2023, we had 4,541,167 shares of common stock outstanding.

We have filed several registration statements covering the resale of shares of our common stock held by several stockholders. In connection with our April 2019 private placement, we filed a registration statement covering the resale of shares purchased by the purchasers in the private placement and shares issuable upon exercise of warrants issued in the private placement. In August 2020 and February 2021, we filed registration statements on Form S-3 covering the resale of an aggregate of 635,000 shares of our common stock held by Satter Medical Technology Partners, L.P., or SMTP, and entities affiliated with SMTP. Dr. Nolan Sigal, a partner at Satter Management Co., L.P., an affiliate of SMTP, is a member of our board of directors.

We have also registered all shares of common stock that we may issue under our equity compensation plans, including upon exercise of outstanding options. These shares can be freely sold in the public market upon issuance, subject to volume limitations applicable to affiliates.

Our certificate of incorporation designates the state courts in the State of Delaware or, if no state court located within the State of Delaware has jurisdiction, the federal court for the District of Delaware, as the sole and exclusive forum for certain types of actions and proceedings that may be initiated by our stockholders, which could discourage lawsuits against the company and our directors, officers and employees.

Our certificate of incorporation provides that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware (or, if the Court of Chancery does not have jurisdiction, the federal district court for the District of Delaware) will be the sole and exclusive forum for any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf, any action asserting a claim of breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any of our directors, officers or employees to our company or our stockholders, any action asserting a claim against us arising pursuant to any provision of the General Corporation Law of the State of Delaware or our certificate of incorporation or bylaws, or any action asserting a claim against us governed by the internal affairs doctrine. We do not expect this choice of forum provision will apply to suits brought to enforce a duty or liability created by the Securities Act, the Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or any other claim for which federal courts have exclusive jurisdiction. This exclusive forum provision may limit the ability of our stockholders to bring a claim in a judicial forum that such stockholders find favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers or employees, which may discourage such lawsuits against us and our directors, officers and employees.

Item 1B. Unresolved Staff Comments.

None.

Item 2. Properties.

We lease approximately 3,365 square feet of office space at our corporate headquarters in Boston, Massachusetts. The lease commenced April 2021, and has an initial term of two years. We do not plan to renew the lease following its expiration on March 31, 2023 and plan to operate virtually.

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Item 3. Legal Proceedings.

We are not currently subject to any material legal proceedings.

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures.

Not Applicable.

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PART II

Item 5. Market for Registrant’s Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities.

Our common stock trades under the symbol “ALRN” on the Nasdaq Capital Market and has been publicly traded since June 29, 2017. Prior to this time, there was no public market for our common stock.

Holders of Our Common Stock

As of March 16, 2023, there were approximately 29 holders of record of shares of our common stock. This number does not include stockholders for whom shares are held in “nominee” or “street” name.

Dividend Policy

We have never declared nor paid cash dividends on our common stock. We currently intend to retain all of our future earnings, if any, to finance the growth and development of our business. We do not intend to pay cash dividends in respect of our common stock in the foreseeable future. Any future determination to pay cash dividends will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on restrictions and other factors our board of directors may deem relevant. Investors should not purchase our common stock with the expectation of receiving cash dividends.

Item 6. [Reserved]

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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

The following discussion and analysis is meant to provide material information relevant to an assessment of the financial condition and results of operations of our company, including an evaluation of the amounts and certainty of cash flows from operations and from outside sources, so as to allow investors to better view our company from management’s perspective. You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with our audited financial statements and related notes appearing elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. In addition to historical information, this discussion and analysis contains forward-looking statements that involve risks, uncertainties and assumptions. Our actual results may differ materially from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements as a result of certain factors. We discuss factors that we believe could cause or contribute to these differences below and elsewhere in this report, including those set forth under Item 1A. “Risk Factors” in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Unless otherwise indicated, all information in this Annual Report on Form 10-K gives effect to a 1-for-20 reverse stock split of our common stock that became effective on November 10, 2022, and all references to shares of common stock outstanding and per share amounts give effect to the reverse stock split.

Announcement of Exploration of Strategic Alternatives

In February 2023, we announced a review of initial data from our Phase 1b chemoprotection trial of ALRN-6924 in patients with p53-mutated breast cancer showed that patients in the trial experienced severe neutropenia (Grade 4) and alopecia. The primary endpoint of the Phase 1b open-label trial, which was evaluating ALRN-6924 in patients with breast cancer receiving neoadjuvant or adjuvant treatment with docetaxel, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide, or TAC chemotherapy, was duration and incidence of severe neutropenia in cycle 1. Incidence of chemotherapy-induced alopecia (hair loss) was a secondary endpoint. Based on these findings, we have decided to terminate the Phase 1b breast cancer trial and further development of ALRN-6924.

We also announced that we are exploring a range of strategic alternatives to maximize shareholder value. We have engaged Ladenburg Thalmann & Co., Inc. to act as a strategic advisor for this process. Strategic alternatives that are being evaluated may include, but are not limited to, an acquisition, a merger, a business combination, a sale of assets or other transactions. There is no set timetable for this process and there can be no assurances that this process will result in us pursing a transaction or that any transaction, if pursued, will be completed on attractive terms. Due to the inherent uncertainty in the timing and cost of these potential strategic alternatives, including their impact on our cash consumption, we have concluded that as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K there is substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern.

In addition, we have determined to reduce our workforce from nine to three full-time employees, which we expect to complete in the second quarter of 2023. We plan to retain the remaining employees to assist in executing the strategic alternative review process.

Overview

ALRN-6924 is a MDM2/MDMX dual inhibitor that leverages our proprietary peptide drug technology.

When used as a chemoprotective agent, ALRN-6924 is designed to activate p53, which in turn upregulates p21, a known inhibitor of the cell replication cycle. ALRN-6924 was the only reported chemoprotective agent in clinical development to employ a biomarker strategy, in which we exclusively focused on treating patients with p53-mutated cancers. We originally initiated development of ALRN-6924 as an anti-cancer agent to restore p53-dependent tumor suppression in p53 wild-type tumors. When used as an anti-cancer agent, ALRN-6924 is designed to disrupt the interaction of p53 suppressors MDM2 and MDMX with tumor suppressor p53 to reactivate tumor suppression in non-mutant, or wild-type, p53 cancers.

Our clinical development program for ALRN-6924 as a selective chemoprotective agent in patients with p53-mutated cancer included the following clinical trials:

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Our clinical development program for ALRN-6924 as an anti-cancer agent in patients with wild-type p53 included the following clinical trials:

Since our inception, we have devoted a substantial portion of our resources to developing our product candidates, including ALRN-6924, developing our proprietary stabilized cell-permeating peptide platform, building our intellectual property portfolio, business planning, raising capital and providing general and administrative support for these operations.

To date, we have financed operations primarily through $145.5 million in net proceeds from sales of common stock, $131.2 million from sales of preferred stock prior to our IPO, and $34.9 million from a collaboration agreement in 2010.

Since our inception, we have incurred significant losses on an aggregate basis. Our net losses were $27.3 million and $26.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. As of December 31, 2022, we had an accumulated deficit of $272.8 million. These losses have resulted primarily from costs incurred in connection with research and development activities, licensing and patent investment and general and administrative costs associated with our operations. In February 2023, we discontinued development of ALRN-6924 to substantially reduce our operating expenses while we undertake a comprehensive assessment of our strategic options. Notwithstanding these events, we expect to continue to incur operating losses for the foreseeable future.

Subject to the outcome of our exploration of strategic alternatives, we believe that, based on our current operating plan, our cash, cash equivalents and investments of $21.2 million as of December 31, 2022, will enable us to fund our operating expenses for at least twelve months following the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Due to the inherent uncertainty in the timing and cost of these potential strategic alternatives, including their impact on our cash consumption, we have concluded that as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K there is substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern. Our funding estimates are based on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could use our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect, see “Liquidity and Capital Resources.” Our future viability is dependent on our ability to consummate a successful acquisition, merger, business combination, or a sale of assets or other transaction. If we do not, our board of directors may decide to explore other strategic alternatives, including, without limitation, a dissolution of our company.

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Reverse Stock Split

On November 10, 2022, we completed a reverse stock split of our outstanding shares of common stock at a ratio of one-for-twenty. The reverse stock split was approved by our stockholders at our Annual Meeting of Stockholders on June 15, 2022. All share and per share amounts of the common stock included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including in the accompanying financial statements, have been retrospectively adjusted to give effect to the reverse stock split for all periods presented, including reclassifying an amount equal to the reduction in par value to additional paid-in capital.

Components of our Results of Operations

Revenue

We have not generated any revenue from product sales and, as we do not have any product candidates under development, we do not expect to generate any revenue from the sale of products in the future.

Operating Expenses

Our expenses since inception have consisted solely of research and development costs and general and administrative costs.

Research and Development Expenses

For the periods presented in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, research and development expenses consist primarily of costs incurred for our research activities, including our discovery efforts, and the development of ALRN-6924, and include:

For the periods presented in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, our employee and infrastructure resources are primarily devoted to the development of ALRN-6924. We expense research and development costs as incurred. We recognize costs for certain development activities, such as clinical trials, based on an evaluation of the progress to completion of specific tasks using data such as patient enrollment, clinical site activations or information provided to us by our vendors and our clinical investigative sites. Payments for these activities are based on the terms of the individual agreements, which may differ from the pattern of costs incurred, and are reflected in our financial statements as prepaid or accrued research and development expenses.

In addition, we typically use our employee and infrastructure resources across our development programs. We track outsourced development costs and milestone payments made under our licensing arrangements by product candidate or development program, but we do not allocate personnel costs, license payments made under our licensing arrangements or other internal costs to specific development programs or product candidates.

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Research and development activities were central to our business model. We expect our research and development expenses to decrease beginning in the first half of 2023 as our result of our February 2023 decision to discontinue development of ALRN-6924 and our related reduction in workforce.

If we had continued development of ALRN-6924, we could not determine with certainty the duration and costs of any clinical trials of ALRN-6924 or if, when, or to what extent we would generate revenue from the commercialization and sale of any of our product candidate for which we obtained marketing approval. We may never have been successful in obtaining marketing approval for any product candidate. If we had continued development of ALRN-6924, the duration, costs and timing of clinical trials and development of ALRN-6924 would depend on a variety of factors, including:

A change in the outcome of any of these variables with respect to the development of a product candidate could mean a significant change in the costs and timing associated with the development of that product candidate. For example, if the FDA, or another regulatory authority were to have required us to conduct clinical trials beyond those that we anticipated would be required for the completion of clinical development of a product candidate, or if we experienced significant trial delays due to patient enrollment or other reasons, we would have been required to expend significant additional financial resources and time on the completion of clinical development.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salaries and other related costs, including stock-based compensation, for personnel in our executive, finance and corporate and administrative functions. General and administrative expenses are comprised of professional fees associated with being a public company including costs of accounting, auditing, legal, regulatory, tax and consulting services associated with maintaining compliance with exchange listing and SEC requirements, director and officer insurance costs; and both public and investor relations costs. General and administrative expenses also include legal fees relating to patent and corporate matters; other insurance costs; travel expenses; and facility-related expenses, which include direct depreciation costs and allocated expenses for rent and maintenance of facilities and other operating costs.

We anticipate that our general and administrative expenses will decrease beginning in the first half of 2023 following our February 2023 decision to discontinue development of ALRN-6924 and the related reduction in workforce. Our future general and administrative expenses will be significantly dependent on the outcome of our strategic process

Interest Income

Interest income consists of interest income earned on our cash, cash equivalents and investments. Historically, our interest income had not been significant due to low investment balances and low interest earned on those balances. We anticipate that our interest income will fluctuate in the future in response to our cash, cash equivalents and investments, and the interest rate environment.

Other Income, net

Other income, net consists of gains or losses recognized from non-routine items such as debt forgiveness under the Paycheck Protection Program and gains or losses recognized from the disposal of fixed assets.

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Income Taxes

Since our inception in 2001, we have not recorded any U.S. federal or state income tax benefits for the net losses we have incurred in any year or for our earned research and development tax credits, due to our uncertainty of realizing a benefit from those items. As of December 31, 2022, we had federal and state net operating loss carryforwards of $239.6 million and $231.6 million, respectively, which begin to expire in 2029 and 2030, respectively. As of December 31, 2022, we also had federal and state research and development tax credit carryforwards of $2.7 million and $1.9 million, respectively, which begin to expire in 2025 and 2026, respectively. We also have federal orphan drug tax credit carryforwards of $2.4 million which begin to expire in 2039.

Utilization of the net operating loss carryforwards and research and development tax credit carryforwards may be subject to a substantial annual limitation under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 and similar state statutes due to ownership changes that have occurred previously or that could occur in the future. These ownership changes may limit the amount of carryforwards that can be utilized annually to offset future taxable income. In general, an ownership change, as defined by Section 382, results from transactions increasing the ownership of certain stockholders or public groups in the stock of a corporation by more than 50% over a three-year period.

We have not conducted a study to assess whether a change of control has occurred or whether there have been multiple changes of control since inception due to the significant complexity and cost associated with such a study. We may have experienced such ownership changes in the past and may experience such ownership changes in the future as a result of any strategic transaction. If we have experienced, or do experience, a change of control, as defined by Section 382 and similar state statutes, at any time since inception, utilization of the net operating loss carryforwards or research and development tax credit carryforwards would be subject to an annual limitation under Section 382 and similar state statutes, which is determined by first multiplying the value of our common stock at the time of the ownership change by the applicable long-term tax-exempt rate, and then could be subject to additional adjustments, as required. Any limitation may result in expiration of a portion of the net operating loss carryforwards or research and development tax credit carryforwards before utilization. Further, until a study is completed and any limitation is known, no amounts are being presented as an uncertain tax position.

Critical Accounting Policies and Use of Estimates

Our management’s discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations is based on our financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States. The preparation of our financial statements and related disclosures requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, costs and expenses and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities in our financial statements. We base our estimates on historical experience, known trends and events and various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Our actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

While our significant accounting policies are described in more detail in the notes to our financial statements appearing at the end of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, we believe that the following accounting policies are those most critical to the judgments and estimates used in the preparation of our financial statements.

Accrued Research and Development Expenses

As part of the process of preparing our financial statements, we are required to estimate our accrued research and development expenses. This process involves reviewing open contract and purchase orders, communicating with our personnel to identify services that have been performed on our behalf and estimating the level of service performed and the associated costs incurred for the services when we have not yet been invoiced or otherwise notified of the actual costs. The majority of our service providers invoice us in arrears for services performed, on a pre-determined schedule or when contractual milestones are met; however, some require advanced payments. We make estimates of our accrued expenses as of each balance sheet date in our financial statements based on facts and

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circumstances known to us at that time. Examples of estimated accrued research and development expenses include fees paid to:

We base our expenses related to preclinical studies and clinical trials on our estimates of the services received and efforts expended pursuant to quotes and contracts with multiple CROs that conduct and manage preclinical studies and clinical trials on our behalf. The financial terms of these agreements are subject to negotiation, vary from contract to contract and may result in uneven payment flows. There may be instances in which payments made to our vendors will exceed the level of services provided and result in a prepayment of the expense. Payments under some of these contracts depend on factors such as the successful enrollment of patients and the completion of clinical trial milestones. In accruing fees, we estimate the time period over which services will be performed, enrollment of patients, number of sites activated and the level of effort to be expended in each period. If the actual timing of the performance of services or the level of effort varies from our estimate, we adjust the accrual or amount of prepaid expense accordingly. Although we do not expect our estimates to be materially different from amounts actually incurred, our understanding of the status and timing of services performed relative to the actual status and timing of services performed may vary and may result in us reporting amounts that are too high or too low in any particular period. To date, we have not made any material adjustments to our prior estimates of accrued research and development expenses.

Stock-Based Compensation

We measure stock options and other stock-based awards granted to employees and directors based on their fair value on the date of the grant and recognize compensation expense of those awards, net of estimated forfeitures, over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. We apply the straight-line method of expense recognition to all awards with only service-based vesting conditions and apply the graded-vesting method to all awards with performance-based vesting conditions or to awards with both service-based and performance-based vesting conditions.

We estimate the fair value of each stock option grant on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, which uses as inputs the fair value of our common stock and assumptions we make for the volatility of our common stock, the expected term of our stock options, the risk-free interest rate for a period that approximates the expected term of our stock options and our expected dividend yield.

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Results of Operations

Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2022 and 2021

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021 in thousands:

Research and Development Expenses

Research and development expenses for the year ended December 31, 2022 were $18.0 million, compared to $17.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2021. The increase of $1.0 million was primarily due to $3.5 million of increased spending for our terminated Phase 1b breast cancer trial, offset by reduced spending of $1.3 million for our completed healthy volunteer study, $1.0 million for our completed small cell lung cancer trial, and $0.3 million for our completed Phase 1b non-small cell lung cancer trial.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses were $9.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2022, compared to $9.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2021. The increase of $0.1 million in general and administrative expense was primarily a result of travel related expenses.

Other Income (Expense), net

Other income, net of $0.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2022 consisted solely of interest income.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Since our inception, we have incurred significant losses on an aggregate basis. We have not yet commercialized any product candidate, including ALRN-6924, and, as we do not have any product candidates under development, we do not expect to generate revenue from sales of any products. We have financed our operations through sales of common stock in our initial public offering and follow-on public offerings, sales of common stock and warrants in a private placement, sales of common stock in “at-the-market” offerings, sales of common stock under our equity line with Lincoln Park Capital LLC, or LPC, sales of preferred stock prior to our initial public offering and payments received under a collaboration agreement. As of December 31, 2022, we had cash, cash equivalents and investments of $21.2 million.

Public Offerings

On April 2, 2019, we issued and sold in a private placement an aggregate of (i) 591,922 units, consisting of 591,922 shares of our common stock and associated warrants, or the common warrants, to purchase an aggregate of 591,922 shares of common stock, for a combined price of $40.20 per unit and (ii) 54,837 units, consisting of (a) pre-funded warrants to purchase 54,837 shares of our common stock and (b) associated common warrants to purchase 54,837 shares of common stock, for a combined price of $40.20 per unit. The pre-funded warrants had an exercise price of $0.20 per share and had no expiration. The common warrants are exercisable at an exercise price of $40.00

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per share and expire in April 2024. The securities were sold pursuant to a securities purchase agreement entered into with accredited investors on March 28, 2019. We received aggregate gross proceeds from the private placement of approximately $26.0 million before deducting placement agent fees and offering expenses of approximately $2.2 million and excluding the exercise of any warrants. In July 2019, all outstanding pre-funded warrants were exercised for 54,837 shares of common stock.

In January 2021, we issued and sold an aggregate of 1,631,549 shares of common stock in a registered direct offering at a purchase price per share of $22.00. The aggregate gross proceeds of the registered direct offering were $35.9 million, before deducting fees payable to the placement agent and other estimated offering expenses payable by us of approximately $2.9 million.

At-the-Market Offering

In July 2019, we entered into a Sales Agreement with JonesTrading Institutional Services LLC, or JonesTrading, under which we were able to issue and sell shares of common stock, having an aggregate offering price of up to $15.0 million, or the Prior Sales Agreement. During the year ended December 31, 2020, we issued and sold an aggregate of 208,044 shares of common stock pursuant to the Prior Sales Agreement for gross proceeds of $4.0 million, before deducting commissions and fees. Between January 1, 2021 and January 28, 2021, we sold an additional 358,749 shares of common stock pursuant to the Prior Sales Agreement for gross proceeds of $9.7 million, before deducting commissions and fees. We terminated the Prior Sales Agreement in January 2021.

In January 2021, we entered into a Capital on Demand Sales Agreement, or the ATM Sales Agreement, with JonesTrading Institutional Services LLC, or JonesTrading, and William Blair & Company, L.L.C., or William Blair, as agents, under which we may issue and sell shares of common stock, having an aggregate offering price of up to $30.0 million. Sales of common stock through JonesTrading and William Blair may be made by any method that is deemed an “at the market” offering as defined in Rule 415(a)(4) under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended. We are not obligated to make any sales of common stock under the ATM Sales Agreement. During the year ended December 31, 2021, we issued and sold an aggregate of 261,270 shares of common stock pursuant to the ATM Sales Agreement for proceeds of $10.6 million, after deducting commissions and fees, and approximately $19.4 million remained available for sale under the ATM Sales Agreement as of December 31, 2022. Pursuant to a prospectus relating to the ATM Sales Agreement we filed with the SEC on June 21, 2022, we may offer and sell shares of our common stock having an aggregate offering price of up to $14.0 million under the ATM Sales Agreement. There were no sales under the ATM Sales Agreement during the year ended December 31, 2022.

Equity Line Financing

On September 21, 2020, we entered into a purchase agreement, or the Purchase Agreement, with LPC for an equity line financing. The Purchase Agreement provides that, subject to the terms and conditions set forth therein, we have the right, but not the obligation, to sell to LPC, and LPC is obligated to purchase up to $15.0 million of shares of common stock at our sole discretion, over a 36-month period that commenced in October 2020. We filed a registration statement on Form S-1 covering the sale of shares of common stock that are issued to LPC under the Purchase Agreement, which was declared effective on October 15, 2020.

Upon entering into the Purchase Agreement, we issued and sold 18,382 shares of common stock, or the Initial Purchase Shares, to LPC at a price per share of $27.20, or $0.5 million, which is part of the $15.0 million of shares of common stock that we may sell to LPC under the Purchase Agreement. Additionally, we issued to LPC as a commitment fee of 11,029 shares of common stock as consideration for LPC entering into the Purchase Agreement.

Under the Purchase Agreement, we may, at our discretion, direct LPC to purchase on any single business day, or a Regular Purchase, up to (i) 12,500 shares of common stock if the closing sale price of our common stock is not below $30.00 per share on Nasdaq, (ii) 10,000 shares of common stock if the closing sale price of our common stock is not below $20.00 per share on Nasdaq or (iii) 7,500 shares of common stock if the closing sale price of our common stock is below $20.00 per share on Nasdaq. In any case, LPC’s commitment in any single Regular Purchase may not exceed $1.0 million. The foregoing share amounts and per share prices will be adjusted for any reorganization, recapitalization, non-cash dividend, stock split, reverse stock split or other similar transaction.

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The purchase price per share for each such Regular Purchase will be based on prevailing market prices of our common stock immediately preceding the time of sale as computed under the Purchase Agreement. Under the Purchase Agreement, we may not effect any sales of shares of common stock on any purchase date that the closing sale price of our common stock on Nasdaq is less than the floor price of $6.00 per share, which will be adjusted for any reorganization, recapitalization, non-cash dividend, stock split or other similar transaction. As of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, the closing sale price of our common stock on Nasdaq is less than the floor price of $6.00 per share under the Purchase Agreement. As a result, we cannot issue and sell shares of our common stock to LPC under the Purchase Agreement, and we do not expect to be able to do so for the foreseeable future.

In addition to Regular Purchases, we may also direct LPC to purchase other amounts as accelerated purchases or as additional accelerated purchases on the terms and subject to the conditions set forth in the Purchase Agreement.

The net proceeds under the Purchase Agreement to us will depend on the frequency of sales and the number of shares sold to LPC and prices at which we sell shares to LPC.

The Purchase Agreement contains customary representations, warranties, covenants, indemnification and termination provisions. LPC has covenanted not to cause or engage in any manner whatsoever, any direct or indirect short selling or hedging of our common stock. There are no limitations on use of proceeds, financial or business covenants, restrictions on future financings (other than restrictions on our ability to enter into additional “equity line” or a substantially similar transaction whereby a specific investor is irrevocably bound pursuant to an agreement with us to purchase securities over a period of time from us at a price based on the market price of the common stock at the time of such purchase), rights of first refusal, participation rights, penalties or liquidated damages in the Purchase Agreement. The Purchase Agreement may be terminated by us at any time, at our sole discretion, without any cost or penalty. During any “event of default” under the Purchase Agreement, LPC does not have the right to terminate the Purchase Agreement; however, we may not initiate any purchase of shares by LPC until such event of default is cured. In the year ended December 31, 2020, we issued and sold an aggregate of 70,882 shares of common stock to LPC for gross proceeds of $1.8 million. In the year ended December 31, 2021, we issued and sold an aggregate of 68,750 shares of common stock to LPC for gross proceeds of $2.6 million. There were no sales under the Purchase Agreement during the year ended December 31, 2022.

Cash Flows

The following table summarizes our sources and uses of cash for each of the periods presented:

Operating Activities.

During the year ended December 31, 2022, operating activities used $24.9 million of cash, primarily resulting from our net loss of $27.3 million and cash provided by the change in operating assets and liabilities of $0.4 million offset by non-cash charges of $2.0 million. Non-cash charges resulted primarily from stock-based compensation expense. Changes in our operating assets and liabilities during the year ended December 31, 2022 consisted primarily of a decrease of $1.6 million in accrued expenses and other current liabilities, a decrease of $1.6 million in prepaid expense and other assets, and an increase of $0.5 million in accounts payable.

During the year ended December 31, 2021, operating activities used $23.8 million of cash, primarily resulting from our net loss of $26.2 million and cash provided by the change in operating assets and liabilities of $0.2 million offset by non-cash charges of $2.2 million. Non-cash charges resulted primarily from stock-based compensation

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expense. Changes in our operating assets and liabilities during the year ended December 31, 2021 consisted primarily of an increase of $1.0 million in accrued expenses and other current liabilities and a decrease of $0.3 million in prepaid expense and other assets, and $0.4 million in accounts payable

Investing Activities.

During the year ended December 31, 2022, investing activities provided $26.5 million of cash. We received $48.3 million of proceeds from the sale of investments, offset by $21.9 million of purchases of investments.

During the year ended December 31, 2021, investing activities used $35.9 million of cash. We received $37.8 million of proceeds from the sale of investments and $0.1 million from the sale of property and equipment offset by $73.6 million of purchases of investments.

Financing Activities.

During the year ended December 31, 2022, net cash provided by financing activities was $0 million.

During the year ended December 31, 2021, net cash provided by financing activities was $55.7 million due to the proceeds received from the sale of common stock in the first quarter of 2021.

Funding Requirements

We expect our operating expenses to decrease significantly beginning in the first half of 2023 following our February 2023 decision to discontinue development of ALRN-6924 and implement a reduction in workforce. However, we may not realize, in full or in part, the anticipated benefits and savings in operating expenses from these decisions due to unforeseen difficulties, delays or unexpected costs.

Our future capital requirements will depend on many factors, including:

If we continued to pursue development of ALRN-6924, our capital requirements would have depended on many factors, including:

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Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial revenues, we expect to finance our cash needs through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings, or other third-party funding. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, the ownership interests of existing stockholders will be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect the rights of existing stockholders. Debt financing, if available, may involve agreements that include liens or other restrictive covenants limiting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, or declaring dividends.

There can be no assurance that a strategic transaction will be completed and our board of directors may decide to pursue a dissolution and liquidation. In such an event, the amount of cash available for distribution to our stockholders will depend heavily on the timing of such decision and, as with the passage of time the amount of cash available for distribution will be reduced as we continue to fund our operations. In addition, if our board of directors were to approve and recommend, and our stockholders were to approve, a dissolution and liquidation, we would be required under Delaware corporate law to pay our outstanding obligations, as well as to make reasonable provision for contingent and unknown obligations, prior to making any distributions in liquidation to our stockholders. As a result of this requirement, a portion of our assets may need to be reserved pending the resolution of such obligations and the timing of any such resolution is uncertain. In addition, we may be subject to litigation or other claims related to a dissolution and liquidation. If a dissolution and liquidation were pursued, our board of directors, in consultation with our advisors, would need to evaluate these matters and make a determination about a reasonable amount to reserve. Accordingly, holders of our common stock could lose all or a significant portion of their investment in the event of a liquidation, dissolution or winding up. Due to the inherent uncertainty in the timing and cost of these potential strategic alternatives, including their impact on our cash consumption, we have concluded that as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K there is substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern.

If we are unable to raise additional funds when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our strategic process and we may consider seeking protection under the bankruptcy laws in order to continue to pursue potential strategic alternatives. If we decide to seek protection under the bankruptcy laws, we would expect that we would file for bankruptcy at a time that is significantly earlier than when we would otherwise exhaust our cash resources. If we decide to dissolve and liquidate our assets or to seek protection under the bankruptcy laws, it is unclear to what extent we will be able to pay our obligations, and, it is further unclear whether and to what extent any resources will be available for distributions to stockholders.

Contractual Obligations

We lease 3,365 square feet of office space at our corporate headquarters in Boston, Massachusetts. Our remaining contractual rent commitment under this lease was less than $0.1 million as of December 31, 2022. The lease expires March 31, 2023 and we do not plan on renewing the lease. Following expiration of the lease, we plan to operate virtually. For a description of our lease obligations, refer to Note 12 to our consolidated financial statements appearing in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Emerging Growth Company Status

Prior to December 31, 2022, we qualified as an “emerging growth company” as defined in Section 101 of The Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the JOBS Act. We ceased to qualify as an emerging growth company as of December 31, 2022, and are now subject to Section 14A(a) and (b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, beginning with our fiscal year starting January 1, 2023. However, notwithstanding the loss of our status as an emerging growth company, we will continue to be exempt from Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 for so long as we are neither a “large accelerated filer” nor an “accelerated filer” as those terms are defined in Rule 12b-2 under the Exchange Act.

We are a “smaller reporting company” as defined in Rule 12b-2 under the Exchange Act. We may continue to be a smaller reporting company if either (i) the market value of our shares held by non-affiliates is less than $250 million or (ii) our annual revenue was less than $100 million during the most recently completed fiscal year and the

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market value of our shares held by non-affiliates is less than $700 million. For so long as we continue to be a smaller reporting company, we may continue to rely on exemptions from certain disclosure requirements that are available to smaller reporting companies.

Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements

We have reviewed all recently issued standards and have determined that, other than as disclosed in Note 2 to our financial statements appearing at the end of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, such standards will not have a material impact on our financial statements or do not otherwise apply to our operations.

Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk.

We are a smaller reporting company, as defined in Rule 12b-2 under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, for this reporting period and are not required to provide the information required under this item.

Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data.

The financial statements required to be filed pursuant to this Item 8 are appended to this Annual Report on Form 10-K. An index of those financial statements is found in Item 15 of Part IV of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Item 9. Changes in and Disagreements with Accountants on Accounting and Financial Disclosure.

None

Item 9A. Controls and Procedures.

Limitations on Effectiveness of Controls and Procedures

The term “disclosure controls and procedures,” as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, refers to controls and procedures that are designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by a company in the reports that it files or submits under the Exchange Act is recorded, processed, summarized and reported, within the time periods specified in the SEC’s rules and forms. Disclosure controls and procedures include, without limitation, controls and procedures designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by a company in the reports that it files or submits under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to the company’s management, including its principal executive and principal financial officers, or persons performing similar functions, as appropriate to allow timely decisions regarding required disclosure.

In designing and evaluating our disclosure controls and procedures, management recognizes that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable assurance of achieving the desired control objectives. In addition, the design of disclosure controls and procedures must reflect the fact that there are resource constraints and that management is required to apply judgment in evaluating the benefits of possible controls and procedures relative to their costs.

Evaluation of Disclosure Controls and Procedures

Our management, with the participation of our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, evaluated, as of the end of the period covered by this Annual Report on Form 10-K, the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures (as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Exchange Act of 1934). Based on that evaluation, our Chief Executive Officer and Interim Chief Financial Officer concluded that our disclosure controls and procedures were effective at the reasonable assurance level as of December 31, 2022.

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Management’s Annual Report on Internal Control over Financial Reporting

Our management is responsible for establishing and maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting. Internal control over financial reporting is defined in Rules 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f) promulgated under the Exchange Act as a process designed by, or under the supervision of, the company’s principal executive and principal financial officers and effected by the company’s board of directors, management and other personnel, to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the preparation of financial statements for external purposes in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles and includes those policies and procedures that:

Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting may not prevent or detect misstatements. Therefore, even those systems determined to be effective can provide only reasonable assurance with respect to financial statement preparation and presentation. Projections of any evaluation of effectiveness to future periods are subject to the risk that controls may become inadequate because of changes in conditions, or that the degree of compliance with the policies or procedures may deteriorate.

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Our management assessed the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2022. In making this assessment, management used the criteria set forth by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission in Internal Control—Integrated Framework (2013 framework) (COSO). Based on its assessment, management believes that, as of December 31, 2022, our internal control over financial reporting is effective at the reasonable assurance level.

Changes in Internal Control Over Financial Reporting

No change in our internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Rules 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f) under the Exchange Act) has occurred during the quarter ended December 31, 2022 that has materially affected, or is reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

Item 9B. Other Information.

None.

Item 9C. Disclosure Regarding Foreign Jurisdictions that Prevent Inspections.

None.

PART III

Item 10. Directors, Executive Officers and Corporate Governance.

The information required by this Item 10 will be included under the captions “Executive Officers,” “Election of Directors” and “Delinquent Section 16(a) Reports” in our definitive proxy statement to be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC, with respect to our 2023 Annual Meeting of Stockholders, which is expected to be filed no later than 120 days after the end of our last fiscal year ended December 31, 2022 and is incorporated herein by reference.

We have adopted a Code of Business Conduct and Ethics that applies to our officers, including our principal executive, financial and accounting officers, and our directors and employees. We have posted the text of our Code of Business Conduct and Ethics under the “Investors & Media — Corporate Governance” section of our website, www.aileronrx.com. We intend to disclose on our website any amendments to, or waivers from, the Code of Business Conduct and Ethics that are required to be disclosed pursuant to the disclosure requirements of Item 5.05 of Form 8-K.

Item 11. Executive Compensation.

The information required by this Item 11 will be included under the captions “Executive and Director Compensation” and “Compensation Committee Interlocks and Insider Participation” in our definitive proxy statement to be filed with the SEC with respect to our 2023 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is, other than the information required by Item 402(v) of Regulation S-K, incorporated herein by reference

Item 12. Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management and Related Stockholder Matters.

The information required by this Item 12 will be included under the captions “Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management” and “Securities Authorized for Issuance Under Equity Compensation Plans” in our definitive proxy statement to be filed with the SEC with respect to our 2023 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is incorporated herein by reference.

Item 13. Certain Relationships and Related Transactions, and Director Independence.

The information required by this Item 13 will be included, as applicable, under the captions “Employment Agreements,” “Director Independence” and “Related Person Transactions” in our definitive proxy statement to be

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filed with the SEC with respect to our 2023 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is incorporated herein by reference.

Item 14. Principal Accounting Fees and Services.

The information required by this Item 14 will be included under the captions “Audit Fees and Services” and “Pre-Approval Policies and Procedures” in our definitive proxy statement to be filed with the SEC with respect to our 2023 Annual Meeting of Stockholders and is incorporated herein by reference.

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PART IV

Item 15. Exhibits, Financial Statement Schedules.

The following documents are filed as part of this Report:

Item 16. Form 10-K Summary.

None.

INDEX TO FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

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